60. Parks, Quiet Strength, 87.
61. Parks, My Story, 209.
62. Cassandra Spratling, “Goodbye, Mrs. Parks,” Detroit Free Press, October 25, 2005.
63. Portia Scott, “Civil Rights Catalyst Rosa Parks Visits the City,” Atlanta Daily World, February 22, 1985.
Rosa Parks outside the Highlander Folk School Library, circa 1955.
Parks, Septima Clark, and Parks’s mother pose during Parks’s visit to Highlander in December 1956 to meet with students desegregating schools in Clinton, Tennessee.
From left: Martin Luther King Jr., Pete Seeger, Myles Horton’s daughter Charis, Parks, and Ralph Abernathy gather for Highlander’s twenty-fifth anniversary celebration, 1957.
Septima Clark and Parks share a relaxing moment at Highlander, circa 1955.
Parks and her husband, Raymond, go to court for her arraignment on December 5, 1955, the first day of the Montgomery bus boycott.
Parks with Martin Luther King Jr. circa 1955.
Parks and Stokely Carmichael outside Rev. Albert Cleage’s Central Congregational Church in Detroit, late 1960s.
Parks gets a kiss from her mother, Leona McCauley, after returning home from the civil rights march in Selma, Alabama, in 1965.
Parks, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Autherine Lucy prior to a civil rights rally at Madison Square Garden, 1956.
Parks and E. D. Nixon reunite in Detroit in 1976.
Parks surveys the book tables at the National Black Political Convention in Gary, Indiana.
Parks leads a march down Woodward Avenue in Detroit, August 1976.
Two Montgomery comrades, Parks and Virginia Durr, come together in South Hadley, Massachusetts, 1981.
Parks applauds a speech by Congressman John Conyers at a labor rally in Detroit, late 1980s.
Parks protests apartheid in front of the South African Embassy, Washington, D.C., 1985.
INDEX
Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.
Abernathy, Ralph, 81–82, 86, 89, 92, 94, 95, 108, 111, 121, 135, 137, 141, 146, 163, 216, 218
Alabama Journal, 43, 57, 110, 116, 124
Alabama State College, 10, 34, 45, 50, 51, 60, 73, 80, 81, 87
Aldridge, Dan, 197, 198, 222
Aldridge, Dorothy Dewberry, 191, 198–199
Algiers Motel incident and Peoples Tribunal, 195, 197–199
Allen, Erma Dungee, 90, 119, 121, 138
Anderson, Trezzvant, 142–143, 147
Atchison, Leon, 183, 205, 206
Austin, Richard, 180, 181, 187
Azbell, Joe, 82, 87, 95–96, 73
Baker, Ella, ix, 10, 20, 25–26, 42, 91, 118, 128, 153, 201, 204, 211, 219, 255n50
Bates, Daisy, 152, 161, 162, 175
Berry, Abner, 146, 147, 184
Black Arts Movement, 192, 223
black freedom movement, ix, xi, xv, 163, 185, 189, 200, 217, 218; Christianity, 39, 92, 131–132, 177–180, 202; direct action, 34, 57, 99, 136, 153, 208, 213, 221; northern protest, 165–170, 175–180
black migration, 165, 167–168, 171–172, 177
black nationalism, 3, 177, 178, 180, 197, 204, 206–207, 223, 227, 219; and black nationalist politics, 178
Black Panther Party, 228–229
Black Power movement, xii, xiii, 179, 191, 197, 201, 219–228
black radicalism, 18, 201–207, 220; and militancy, 6, 7, 18, 26, 83, 89, 118, 119, 138, 153, 165, 167, 175, 179, 197, 199, 202, 214; Parks and, xiii, 41, 84, 169, 203, 204, 206, 207
black self-defense, xii, xiii, 3, 9, 14–15, 99, 176, 201, 202, 207–209, 212–214
black women, x, xiii, xvi, 36, 38, 42, 44, 47, 48, 80, 111, 133, 189, 230; and discrimination in Detroit, 151, 171, 183; and education, 8–10, 16; and history of transportation protest, 64, 69, 97; and Million Man March, 232; and organization of Women’s Political Council, 51–52; and respectability, 57, 63, 78, 83–86, 88, 93; and roles for women, 17, 90, 91, 102, 103–104, 121, 138–139, 141, 160, 162, 181–182, 204, 212, 217, 218, 274n17; and sexual exploitation, 10–12, 16, 22–23, 24, 27, 28, 31, 48, 54, 58, 64, 93, 120, 226; and treatment at March on Washington, 160–163; and WPAC, 163
Blake, James Fred, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65–66, 67, 88, 134, 168, 263n116, 264n149
boycotts, 47, 226, 228; and aftermath of Montgomery bus boycott, 132–140; memorialization of bus boycott, ix-xiv, 150, 236, 238, 240, 241; Montgomery bus boycott, 1, 7, 9, 26, 34, 49, 51, 52, 54, 60, 63, 71–74, 78, 79, 80–135, 165, 201, 203, 204–205, 206, 208, 211, 262n102, 270n151, 278n145; New York bus boycott, 44; and Parks’s situation, 141–148, 150, 154, 155, 195, 211; River Rouge bank boycott, 156; threatened boycott of Dearborn, 231
Brinkley, Douglas, xi, 2, 12, 30, 37, 93, 100, 137, 139, 141, 158, 162, 196, 222, 288n183, 291n93
Brooks, Hilliard, 48–49, 113
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 17–18, 19, 30, 128, 165, 201, 211
Browder v. Gayle, 108–109, 114, 132, 133, 141, 146
Brown II (1955), 36
Brown v. Board of Education, 18, 34, 35, 36, 39, 52, 55, 113, 114, 141, 146, 193
Burks, Mary Fair, 8, 9, 45, 51–52, 67, 74, 78, 79
Butler, Bertha, 32, 72, 187
Carmichael, Stokely, 179, 190, 191, 194, 215, 221
Carr, Johnnie, 8, 9, 17, 24, 26, 29, 55, 79–80
Carter, Eugene, 112
Carter, Mary Hays, 102, 186, 210
Central Congregational Church, 178, 179, 198
Chavis, Ben, 226, 230
Chisholm, Shirley, 218
Citizen’s Advisory Committee on Police Community Relations, 176
Citizens City-wide Action Committee (CCAC), 197–198
city councils: Montgomery (AL), 95; Detroit (MI), 175, 187, 199
civil rights movement. See black freedom movement
Civil Rights Act (1964), 159, 193, 283
Clark, Septima, 29, 38–39, 41–42, 71, 91, 130, 162, 201, 203, 211; and financial concerns of Parks 137, 139, 144, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 163; and Parks’s assistance for Highlander, 148, 153, 158
Cleage, Albert, 175, 177, 178–180, 191, 192, 197–199, 210, 211, 223
Cleveland Courts projects, 49, 72–73, 75, 80, 86, 94, 108, 134, 241; history of, 32, 256n95
Cold War, 83, 84, 94, 118, 145, 158, 169, 212
Colvin, Claudette, xi, 31, 33, 51, 64, 85, 114; bus arrest and case, 53–54, 56–60, 67, 69, 74, 76, 79, 80
Communist Party, 15, 35, 37, 77, 83, 96, 112, 128, 141, 145–148, 155, 165, 168, 184–185, 187, 188, 189, 204, 224; and anti-communism, xiv, 24,176
Conyers, John, Jr., 180–187, 218–219, 221, 285n85; and 1967 Detroit riot, 194, 195, 197; employment of Parks, vii, xiii, 143, 164, 167, 169, 170–171, 177, 182–187, 286n117; and initial campaign for Congress, 164, 180–182; on Parks’s political sensibility, 205–207, 264n165; and Parks’s shared political commitments, 220, 230, 231, 238, 239, 281n258; and Parks’s work in office, 182–187, 203, 211, 214, 225, 226, 229
Cooper, Carl, 198, 199
Crenshaw, Doris, 32, 33, 46, 64
Crockett, George, 180, 187, 195, 224
Cruse, Anne, 148, 169, 178
Current, Gloster, 145, 146, 153, 155, 156–157, 280n213
desegregation, xiii, 154, 170; of housing, 182; integration, 38, 40, 70, 113, 133, 139, 159, 168, 204, 227; of schools, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 45, 115, 119, 131, 136, 193; of transportation, 67, 98, 106, 112, 134, 135, 137
Detroit and racial inequality, xii-xiii, 151, 156, 165–168, 191–200, 223–225, 230–235
Detroit Free Press, 185, 233, 236
Detroit’s Great March, 174–180
Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, 44–45, 52, 54–55, 81, 82
Dickerson, Mahalia, 30
“Don’t Buy Where You Can’t Work” campaign, 44, 97
Durr, Clifford, 72, 109, 122; and Virginia, 35–36, 44, 75, 76, 99
Durr, Virginia, 25, 36, 37, 39, 43, 53, 54, 71, 87, 91, 103, 107, 145, 148, 188, 219, 257n120, 263n116, 266n35, 279n182; and
financial assistance for Parks, 119, 120, 121, 124, 126, 128, 131, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142, 150, 154, 155, 229, 273n9, 274n17; and redbaiting, 35, 77, 119–120; and work on Colvin case, 56–58
Eastland, James, 35, 77, 107
Ebony, 174, 237, 239, 288n183
education, 2, 4–5, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 26, 147, 152, 167, 186, 222, 228, 234; and discrimination, 33–35, 47, 137, 168, 174, 191, 243, 244
Edwards, Sylvester, 3
Federal Bureau of Investigation, 94, 108, 111, 137, 159, 189, 214, 221, 224, 225, 226, 270n151
Fields, Uriah, 122, 139
Fisk University, 96, 103
Franklin, C. L., 174, 177, 180, 223, 224
Freedom Now Party, 177, 178, 182, 190, 209, 210
freedom rides, 18, 214
Freedom Train, 29, 41, 68, 201
Friends of SNCC (FOS), 189–191
Garvey, Marcus (Garveyism), xiii, 3–4, 211, 218
Gary Convention. See National Black Political Convention
Gayle, Tacky (mayor of Montgomery), 52, 106, 107, 108, 114, 132, 133, 141
Gilmore, Georgia, 87, 91, 102
Giovanni, Nikki, 43, 68, 123, 126, 223
Graetz, Jean and Robert, 246, 131, 138, 135; Jean, 123, 138; Robert, 23, 65, 86, 91, 92, 93, 94–95, 99, 104, 108, 109–110, 112, 122, 123, 132, 135, 137
grassroots movement, 15, 16, 25, 26, 28, 36, 83, 119, 164, 171, 180, 181, 197, 203, 209, 227, 241
Gray, Fred, 34, 45, 54, 57, 61, 80, 82, 90, 94, 97, 109, 112, 114, 124, 135, 137, 237; as lawyer for Parks, 77, 88–89, 108–109
Great Depression, 10
Group on Advanced Leadership (GOAL), 178, 209–210
Hamer, Fannie Lou, 116, 179, 212, 237
Harlem, 21, 25, 44, 128, 177, 193, 209, 212, 236
Haskins, James, xi, 1, 23, 93, 124, 139, 171, 205, 238, 250n12, 261n75
Height, Dorothy, 161, 162, 232, 239
Henry, Milton and Richard, 178, 192, 197, 211, 223; Milton (Gaidi Obadele), 175, 180, 182, 210, 225; Richard (Imari Obadele), 177, 221, 225
Highlander Folk School, xi, xiii, 91, 93, 94, 100, 127, 128, 129, 139, 211, 212, 234; and financial assistance for Parks, 120, 121, 131, 136, 137, 139, 140; Parks’s first visit to (August 1955), 29, 35–43, 58, 71; red-baited, 24, 146, 147, 148, 155, 158, 184, 187, 188, 201; twenty-fifth-anniversary celebration (1957), 146–148; visit with the Graetzes (August 1956), 131–132; visit with Parks’s mother (December 1956), 136–137; workshop on sit-ins (May 1960), 153–154
Hill, Charles, 177, 178
Holt Street Baptist Church, 71, 91, 93, 228, 236
Horne, Lena, 162
Horton, Myles, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 67, 71, 78, 85, 86, 93, 94, 127, 131, 188, 237; and assistance for Parks, 120, 121, 127, 131, 133, 136, 137, 139–140, 163, 188, 229; and red-baiting, 129, 147, 158, 185, 188, 279n171
Huggins, Erika, 217, 228–229
Hurricane Katrina, vii, x, 241
inequality, 144, 169, 173, 174, 175, 178, 232; economic, 5, 22, 192, 216, 238; racial, xiii, 20, 166–167, 169, 171–177, 179, 200, 213
In Friendship, 25, 118, 128
integration. See desegregation
International Legal Defense (ILD), 14–15
Jackson, Esther Cooper, 16, 24, 240
Jackson, Jesse, 230, 232
Jenkins, Esau, 39, 41, 71
Jet, 43, 82, 102, 154
Jim Crow laws, 66, 72; in the North, xiii, 165–174; in the South, viii, xiv, 1, 50, 63, 83. See also segregation
Johns, Vernon, 45, 50, 51, 54–55, 68
Johnson, Arthur, 157, 172, 176
Johnson, Geneva, 48–49
Keith, Damon, vii, 231, 241, 245
Kennedy, John F., 20, 159, 160, 162, 209, 231
King, Coretta Scott, 87, 102, 107, 123, 162, 163, 188, 216, 217, 219, 221, 238, 239
King, Martin Luther, Jr., ix, x, xv, 39, 83, 87, 89, 94, 95, 102, 113, 122, 123, 124, 128, 131, 170, 186, 201, 205, 236, 244; and aftermath of Montgomery bus boycott, 134–135, 137–143, 149; assassination of, 213, 215–219, 230; commemoration of, 228, 238, 242; criticism of, 202; and divisions among civil rights leadership, 118–119, 137–139, 140, 142, 150, 168; leadership of Montgomery bus boycott, xi, 54–56, 66, 71, 73, 78, 79, 81–82, 86, 90–92, 97–98, 99, 104–105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 121, 136, 150, 151; and March on Washington, 159–162; and northern activism, 174–175, 181, 199–200; and northern white resistance to, 196, 199–200, 202; and Parks before the boycott, 55–56; and personal experience with bus segregation, 49–50; redbaiting of, 146–148, 184–185, 187; and Selma-to-Montgomery march, 188; Stride Toward Freedom, 71, 78
King, Rosalyn Oliver, 46–47, 80
King Solomon Baptist Church, 209
Ku Klux Klan, 3, 6, 9, 29, 65, 124, 147, 188, 189
Lewis, John, 160, 239
Lewis, Rufus, 24, 54, 90, 100
Liuzzo, Viola, 188–189
Lowndes County Freedom Organization, 190
Lucy, Autherine, 110, 114–115, 125, 128, 129, 130, 146
Lumumba, Chokwe, 205, 207, 225, 227–228
lynching, 7, 15, 20, 23, 43, 45, 54, 93, 142; and anti-lynching legislation, 27, 33
Madison, Arthur, 21
Madison, Joseph, 231
Malcolm X, ix, xiii, 7, 160, 178, 180, 185, 191, 201, 205, 207, 208, 222; meets Parks, 209–212
March on Washington, 159–163, 185, 211, 216
Marshall, Thurgood, 48, 128, 211
Matthews, Robert, 24, 26, 30
Maxwell Air Force Base, 16, 48, 50, 101, 113, 116, 124
McCauley, James, 2–3
McCauley, Leona, vii, xii, 13, 14, 17, 20, 21, 23, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 51, 56, 64, 65, 72, 80, 102, 107, 128; background and Parks’s childhood, 1–10, 250n10; and Parks’s arrest, 74–77; and difficulties during the boycott, 101–102, 119, 121, 124, 125, 131, 134, 140; and difficulties in Detroit, 149–150, 154, 159, 222, 286n119, 291n102; and visit to Highlander, 136, 137; death of, 229
McWhorter, Diane, 138, 159
Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church, viii, ix
Michigan Chronicle, 151, 175, 176, 199, 220, 223
middle class, 16, 26, 30, 51, 52, 54, 72, 73, 77, 79, 99, 156, 172, 176, 295n59
Million Man March, 232
Miss White’s Montgomery Industrial School for Girls, xii, 7, 8, 9, 10, 17
Montgomery Advertiser, 27, 31, 41, 82, 83, 87, 94, 95, 96, 98, 100, 106, 108, 111, 113, 125, 166
Montgomery Fair, 37, 42–43, 60, 61, 65, 100, 102, 108, 116, 118, 139
Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), 102, 113, 115, 118, 119, 127, 137–138, 140; and organization of boycott, 92, 94–98, 99, 100, 112; origins of, 90–91; treatment of Parks, 104, 105, 107, 121–122, 132, 136–145, 148–149, 152, 153, 157, 159, 273n9
Montgomery Progressive Democratic Association, 44
Moore, Audley (Queen Mother Moore), ix, 212, 221, 223, 232
Morgan, Juliette, 125–126
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, (NAACP), xi, xiii, 7, 8, 14, , 70, 112, 118, 122, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 140, 145, 146, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 161, 164, 177, 211, 224; Detroit branch, 152, 172, 174, 175–176, 193, 203, 231, 280n205; Detroit youth chapter, 190; Monroe chapter, 213–214; Montgomery branch and Parks’s work with, 17–35, 37, 41, 44, 51, 55, 60–61, 64, 66, 67, 69, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 85, 234, 249n10, 255n50, 257n117, 258n161, 268n84; and Montgomery bus boycott, 85, 108–109, 118–119, 126–131, 137–138; Nixon election and activist reorientation of Montgomery branch, 24–30; Parks joins, 17–18; Raymond Parks and, 15–17; redbaiting of 39, 83–84, 96, 114; River Rouge (MI) branch, 155–156, 165; Youth Council (Montgomery), 29–30, 32–33, 36, 37, 41, 43, 45, 56, 58–59, 64, 69, 85, 86–87, 88, 89, 93, 212
National Black Political Convention (Gary Convention), 221
National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in American (N’COBRA), 231–232
National Council of Negro Women, 130, 131, 161
Nation
al Negro Labor Council, 127, 145, 201
National Urban League, 160
New York Times, viii, 94, 110, 112, 114, 216, 233, 249n7
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 39, 158
Nixon, E. D, 17–20, 21, 23, 36, 43, 46, 48, 49, 122, 123, 125, 128, 134–135, 188, 206, 213, 221; election as NAACP branch president and activist reorientation of Montgomery branch, 24–30; and activism pre-boycott, 34–35, 44, 45; and Montgomery bus boycott, xiii, 44, 49, 52–53, 58, 57, 59, 66, 67, 88, 89, 90, 91–92, 99, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 266n29, 277n111; and Parks’s bus arrest, 72–77; organizes for initial boycott, 79–83; and voter registration plan and frustration with MIA, 135–144, 149, 150; and Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 19–20, 165, 201
nonviolent resistance, ix, 99, 100, 119, 131, 136, 164, 169, 170, 202, 208–209, 212, 213, 242
Noonan, Martha Norman, 179, 189, 199, 241
northern migration. See black migration
Parks, Rosa; and anti-apartheid movement, 229–230; and anti–Vietnam War movement, 218–219; and Black Power movement, 202–215, 217, 219–229; boycott leadership’s neglect of Parks, 104, 139, 141–144; bus stand (December 1, 1955), 60–77; commitment to African American history, viii, xv, 4, 5, 234, 174, 203, 207, 220, 222, 223, 234, 237, 240; and criminal justice, 22–24, 27–28, 30–32, 197–199, 224–228; and early activism, vii, xi, xiii, xi 14, 17, 18, 20–46, 69, 102, 108, 136, 157, 249n10; early life of, 1–16; death of, vii, 241; financial struggles of, xii, 5, 10, 37, 76, 77, 84, 116–122, 124, 130, 131, 137, 138, 139, 141, 149, 150–159, 163–164, 168–169, 229; funeral of, vii-x, 241; health issues of, xii, 5, 10, 116, 117, 124, 130, 140, 141, 152, 156, 157, 222, 229, 235; and John Conyers, vii, 143, 164, 180–187; and life in the North, 150–153, 157–158, 165–187, 191–200; meets Malcolm X, 209–212; radicalism of, xiii, 24, 41, 51, 201–207, 229; relationship with King, 55–56, 71, 78, 83, 90–91, 110, 121, 128, 138–139, 142–144, 146, 150, 153, 181, 188, 199–201, 207, 208, 213, 215–217; and Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development, 234–235; and self-defense, 7, 12, 99, 201, 203, 208, 221, 213; as a symbol, x, xv, 83, 92, 93, 94, 104, 117, 121, 139, 164, 203, 233, 235–238, 242–244
The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks Page 45
