The Golden Empire: Spain, Charles V, and the Creation of America
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16. See J. Pérez Villanueva and B. Escandell, Historia de la inquisición en España y América (Madrid, 1984), 1: 447.
17. Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 208.
18. Joseph Pérez, Charles V (Madrid, 1999), 68.
19. Brandi, 395.
20. Ibid., 294.
21. Ibid., 492. There is a good biographical essay in Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 228–38.
22. See letter from Dantiscus to Alfonso Valdés, in Pérez Villanueva, 1: 458, fn. 76.
23. See also Juan de Areizaga’s account of the journey of one of the ships, the Santiago, to Cortés in Mexico.
24. See Martyr, De orbe novo, 2: 239.
25. Carlos Javier de Carlos Morales, in Carlos V y la quiebra, 4: 411–13.
26. Martyr, De orbe novo, 1: 254.
27. Peter Martyr, Epistolario in Documentos inéditos para la historia de España (Madrid, 1953), 83–84.
28. Among them were the dukes of Cardona and Villahermosa; Juan Carrillo; García de Toledo, the heir of the duke of Alba; Pedro Hernández de Córdoba; Alfonso de Silva, heir of the Conde de Cifuentes; Pedro Fajardo, Marquess de los Vélez; Luis Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquess de Mondéjar (future president of the Council of the Indies); Pedro Girón; Pedro de Aguilar; Pedro de Mendoza; and Álvar Gómez de Villareal.
29. Martyr, De orbe novo 2: 345–46. “My feelings for Jamaica are certainly sincere,” he said elsewhere, “but perhaps exaggerated.” 2: 348.
30. Ibid., 1: 338, 348.
31. Epistolario familarum, lib. 17. See Martínez Millán, La corte, 3: 46f.
32. Manuel Giménez Fernández, Bartolomé de las Casas (Seville, 1953, 1960) 1: 283.
33. García de Loaisa, in Keniston, 31.
34. Keniston, 33.
35. Bartolomé de las Casas, Historia de las Indias (Mexico, 1963), 3: 170.
36. Keniston, 117.
37. Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 391–92.
38. Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, 3: 259.
39. Keniston, 120.
40. His Renaissance hospital was founded by Tavera as a general hospital but also as a sepulchre for himself. It is an echo of Cardinal González de Mendoza’s hospital of Santa Cruz. The chief architect was Alonso de Covarrubias, assisted by Tavera’s secretary, Bartolomé de Bustamante. See Fernando Marías, El hospital Tavera de Toledo (Seville, 2007). Later architects included Nicolás de Vergara, father and son.
41. Pérez Villanueva, 1: 523.
42. Giménez Fernandez, Las Casas 2: 16; R. J. Dworski, 206. See, too, Fidel Fita, S.J., “Los judaizantes Españoles en los primeros cinco años del reinado de Carlos I,” in Boletín de la Real Academia de Historia, 33 (Madrid, 1898): 307–48.
43. Salinas, in a letter to the treasurer Salamanca, 100, in Schäfer, 1: 61.
44. Martyr, Epistolario, 170. This was in 1521.
45. CDI, 12: 328. Galíndez de Carvajal came from an Extremeño family, the Carvajals, but his father was archpriest of Trujillo. Lorenzo was the offspring of his liaison with a Galíndez girl from Cáceres.
46. Beltrán also received money from Almagro and Pizarro. The investigation is to be seen in AGI Patronato leg. 185, no. 34 of 1542.
47. Giménez Fernández, Las Casas 2: 264, 953.
48. Enrique Otte, Sevilla en el siglo XVI, 39.
49. Carande Ramón, Carlos V y sus banqueros (Barcelona, 1987), 2: 378.
50. Ibid., 2: 85ff, 58ff.
51. Manuel Fernández Álvarez (ed.), El corpus documental de Carlos V (Salamanca, 1973–1982), 1: 189.
52. Giménez Fernández, Las Casas, 2: 953.
53. Hermann Kellenbenz, Fugger en España y Portugal hasta 1560 (Salamanca, 2000), 356.
54. Salinas, 109.
CHAPTER 6. CORTÉS IN POWER, 1521–1524
1. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 208.
2. See Rivers of Gold, 489; also his Información de servicios y méritos, in AGI Patronato leg. 54, no. 7 of August 11, 1530.
3. M. Covarrubias, in Mexico South: The Isthmus of Tehuantepec (New York, 1947), 38.
4. France V. Scholes and Dave Warren, “The Olmec Region at Spanish Contact,” in Handbook of the Middle American Indians (Austin, 1969), 7: 784.
5. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 229.
6. The father of Bernal Díaz del Castillo was a regidor, a council member of Medina, as was Montalvo also. What a wonderful coincidence!
7. Bernal Díaz claimed to have been with Grijalva, but there are a few indications that that was not so.
8. See Gerhard, Geografía, 141.
9. Others with Sandoval included Rodrigo de Nao of Ávila, Francisco Martín of Vizcaya, and Francisco Ximénez of Extremadura.
10. Scholes and Warren, 784.
11. “Mas pendenciero que luchador.”
12. Rosin was a resin produced by distilling oil of turpentine.
13. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 512; Gerhard, La frontera sureste de la Nueva España, (Mexico, 1991), 124.
14. J. Benedict Warren, ed., The Conquest of Michoacán (Norman, Okla., 1985).
15. Fray Diego Durán, Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España (1867), 2: 284.
16. An Información was published in the Archivo General de la Nación XII (Mexico, 1927), 232. Cortés gave evidence, among others. Martín de Gamboa had sailed to New Spain with Grijalva and had been among those who had urged him to establish a settlement near Veracruz. He fought all the way up with Cortés in the conquest of Mexico and had been the first to reach the edge of the lake after the attack of the Noche Triste on the causeway to Tacuba. Afterwards, he had returned and, by brilliant horsemanship, saved several of his comrades—Sandoval, Antonio de Quiñones, and even the great Alvarado, whom he carried for a while on his horse after his famous “leap.”
17. Warren, 295.
18. Cortés, third letter, in Pagden, 277.
19. Ignacio Bernal, in Handbook, III, II, 809.
20. Florentine Codex (1952 onward), 3: 113.
21. As was suggested by Alfonso Caso in a splendid essay in Handbook, vol. 3, part 2, 915.
22. As argued by P. Rivet and H. Arsandaux, “La metallurgie en Amérique pré-colombienne,” Travaux et mem. instit. d’ethnologie 39 (Paris, 1946).
23. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 246.
24. CDI, 26, 71–76.
25. Dr. Ojeda and Dr. Pedro López, neither of them friends of Cortés, both said that they believed this to be a natural death. See Martyr, Cartas sobre el Nuevo Mundo (Madrid, 1990) 279ff., and Ignacio López Rayón, Documentos para la historia de México (Mexico, 1852–53), 1: 284.
26. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 278.
27. See Donald Chipman, Nuño de Guzmán (Glendale, 1967), 66.
28. Fourth letter of relación, Pagden, 327.
29. Of course Cortés had no idea of the geography of the area concerned.
30. Pagden, fourth letter, 392.
31. Martyr, De orbe novo, 534.
32. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 368.
33. Cortés’s relation with this Las Casas family was through his mother.
34. The Dávilas seem to have come directly from Ciudad Real, but ultimately from Montalván in Ávila. The brothers were the sons of Alonso Dávila, a comendador of the Order of Calatrava, and of Elena Villalobos.
35. Cortés so reports. Díaz del Castillo thought that Cortés had 130 horsemen and 120 foot (4: 364).
36. See Jerome Montell, México: el inicio. (Mexico, 2005), 165ff.
37. Fifth letter of relación, Pagden, 431.
38. Ignacio Bejarano, Actas del Cabildo (Mexico, 1889), 25.
39. Lucia Mier and Rocha Terán, La primera traza de la ciudad de México, 1524–1535. (Mexico, 2005), 168.
40. Martyr, Décadas, 46; letter in Icazbalceta, Colección de documentos 1: 484ff.
41. Mier, 195.
42. Fifth letter to Charles, Pagden, 433.
43. Mier, 196. Grado would die in 1528. Cortés then gave Techuipo to Pedro Gallego, before which Cortés himself gave Techuipo a child, who would become Leonor Cortés Moctezuma. When Ga
llego died, Techuipo was married yet again, to Juan Cano of Cáceres.
44. Martyr, Décadas, 417.
45. Oviedo, 5: 238.
46. Francisco Paso Troncoso, Cartas de Nueva España (Madrid, 1922), 1: 97.
47. Account by Bartolomé de Zarate in 1542, in Paso, 4: 132ff.
48. By 1570, the European population of Spanish America was said to be about 150,000.
CHAPTER 7. CHARLES V: FROM VALLADOLID TO THE FALL OF ROME, 1527
1. Charles V, quoted in Federico Chabod, Carlos V y su imperio (Madrid, 1992), 154–58.
2. Denia was related via the Enríquez family, of which Admiral Fadrique was the head, and of which the mother of King Fernando had been a member.
3. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 1: 83.
4. Qu. García Mercadal, 793.
5. Martyr, De orbe novo, 409. He died in 1524.
6. Información, in AGI Mexico, leg. 203, no. 13.
7. García Mercadal, 795.
8. Bayard was Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, “sans peur et sans reproche,” who had been in Charles VIII’s expedition. He was mortally wounded near Milan.
9. His blood relationship to Cortés is a rumor.
10. These were plays and poems published in 1517 in Naples, “the first things of Pallas.”
11. Alethea Lawley, Vittoria Colonna (London, 1889), 20.
12. Chancellor of Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milano. He was a learned theologian and later cardinal and papal nuncio to the empire in Germany.
13. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 1: 98, n. 21.
14. See Guicciardini, 350, for his argument for “a loving and brotherly liberation.”
15. Brandi, 127.
16. Vives to King Henry VIII, in J. L. Vives, Obras políticas y pacifistas, ed. F. Calero et al. (Madrid, 1999), 77.
17. Headley, 151ff.
18. Headley, 6. See also Ernst Gussaert, Espagnols et Flamands (Brussels, 1910), 250ff.
19. See Fray Prudencio Sandoval, Historia de la vida y hechos del emperador Carlos V (Madrid, 1956), 2: 209.
20. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 15.
21. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 1: 104.
22. Martínez Millán, La corte, 1: 236.
23. Dantiscus, in García Mercadal, 801.
24. Fernández Álvarez rightly wonders why Seville was chosen, why the King traveled there via Extremadura, and why the future queen was asked to wait.
25. Martínez Millán, La corte, 2: 351.
26. He was born May 21, 1527. See J. A. Vilar Sánchez, 1526: Boda y luna de miel de Carlos V (Granada, 2000).
27. See Guicciardini, 221, on the exchange of prisoners at Fuenterrabía, on the border of France and Spain.
28. Bataillon, Erasmo, 321.
29. Alonso Valdés, Obras completas (Madrid, 1964), 250. On Charles and Manrique M. Avilés, see “El Santo Oficio en la primera etapa Carolina,” in Villanueva and Escandell, Historia de la Inquisición. 1: 443–72.
30. Brandi, 251.
31. Francisco Vettori to Machiavelli in Niccolò Machiavelli, Literary Works of Machiavelli: With Selections from the Private Correspondence (London, 1961), 346.
32. Headley, The Emperor and His Chancellor.
33. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 1: 121.
34. Pastor, 10: 352ff.
35. Vicente de Cadenas, Caminos y derroteros (Madrid, 1999), 68.
36. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 1: 120.
37. L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 58.
38. Ibid., 97.
39. Pastor, 14: 332.
40. Abbot of Nájera to the Emperor, after May 6, 1527, cited in Rodríguez Villa, El emperador Carlos V y su corte (Madrid, 1903), 134–41.
41. Bataillon, Erasmo, 407.
42. Charles to Bourbon, June 6, 1527, quoted in Rodríguez Villa, El emperador, 202–203. See comment by Martínez Millán in Carlos V, 142.
43. See Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, 371–72; Alfonso Valdés, Diálogo de las cosas ocurridas en Roma (Madrid, 1956), 14.
44. These had been commissioned by Charles’s aunt Margaret and designed by Bernard van Orley and Jan Gossaert. The tapestries are a visual mirror of princes and depict all the things needed by a good one: fortune, prudence, virtue, faithfulness, fame, justice, nobility, and honor itself. Charles bought this series from the Fuggers, each tapestry being sixteen feet five inches high and eight feet wide. The series was taken to Seville in 1526 and is now in Segovia.
45. Francisco Paso, Epistolario de la Nueva España (Mexico, 1939), 1: 104.
46. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Castaways (Berkeley, Calif., 1993), xv.
47. Bataillon, Erasmo, 257; Brandi, 49–60, 64.
48. Pérez Villanueva and Escandell, 1: 668.
49. Ibid., 1: 252–56.
CHAPTER 8. FOUR BROTHERS IN A CONQUEST: THE ALVARADOS AND GUATEMALA
1. Alvarado led an expedition there with two hundred foot, including twenty crossbowmen headed by Francisco de Orozco, and forty horse. The venture was characterized by Alvarado’s swift execution of two Spaniards who apparently planned to kill their leader.
2. Cortés, fourth letter, 301.
3. Persona de lo más estimada entre todos los capitanes que el dicho marqués tenía en su ejército. AGI Patronato, leg. 69, r. 1. Interrogation of Leonor de Alvarado.
4. Díaz del Castillo, 2: 410.
5. Ibid., 1: 295.
6. A game played with quoits.
7. Among Alvarado’s men in Guatemala there were several who had fought with him throughout the campaigns in Mexico: Juan León Cardona, for example, and Antonio de Salazar. Others were: his secretary, Antonio de Morales; Gonzalo Carrasco, who had been the lookout for Narváez at Cempoallan; Alonso de Loarca; Pedro González de Nájera and Francisco de Tarifa, both of whom had been with Cortés; and Francisco de Andrada.
8. Alonso de Loarca said that Alvarado “traya trezientos y treynta hombres poco mas o menos y este testigo fue uno de ellos.” AGI, Patronato 69, r. 1. But Pedro González de Nájera testified that there were more than five hundred men with Alvarado.
9. Ramón Ezquerra, “Los compañeros de Cortés,” in Revista de Indias, 1: 45.
10. AGI Patronato, leg. 35, no. 3, r. 1.
11. Jorge de Alvarado had always fought alongside his famous brother and married a sister of Luisa, the Tlaxcalan mistress of Pedro. See Gerhard, La frontera, 130.
12. Stephan de Borheygui, in Steward, Handbook of the Middle American Indians, 2: 282.
13. Ibid.
14. “There is no question,” says Stephan de Borheygui, in Handbook, 2: 56, “that by the end of the sixteenth century, these competing nations, weakened as they were by internal and external conflicts, would have fallen victim to the rapidly expanding and military confederation [of the Mexica].”
15. Residencia of Pedro de Alvarado (Mexico, 1847), 86.
16. “One of those marine landscapes not very uncommon on the coast of South America. You behold a range of exhausted volcanoes. Not a flame flickers on a single pallid crest. But the situation is still dangerous. There are occasional earthquakes and, ever and anon, the dark rumbling of the sea.” Robert Blake, Disraeli (London, 1966). After Keats’s inaccurate description of Cortés, this was the most famous declaration made about Latin America in the English language before 1914.
17. Adrián Recinos and D. Goetz, The Annals of the Cakchiquels (Norman, Okla., 1953).
18. See Handbook, 2: 284.
19. Adrián Recinos and D. Goetz, Crónicas indígenas (Norman, Okla., 1952), 141–54.
20. Recinos, Crónicas, 62.
21. Residencia, 246.
22. Ibid., 25, 28. Francisco Flores, Bernadino Vázquez de Tapia, Rodrigo de Castañeda, and Alonso Morzillo also testified to Alvarado’s rough methods.
23. Recinos, Crónicas, 63.
24. General Camilo Polavieja, Hernán Cortés, copias de documentos (Seville, 1889), 75.
25. Alvarado’s attachment to Guatemala is thus reported by Ló
pez de Gómara, Hispania victrix, 12.
26. Popol Vuh: The Maya Book of the Dawn of Life, translated by Dennis Tedlock (New York, 1996), 18.
CHAPTER 9. CHARLES AND HIS EMPIRE
1. The Spanish empire in America is scarcely mentioned in The World of Charles V (New York, 2000), the admirable work of Wim Blockmans and Nicolette Mout.
2. Juan Friede, Los Welser (Bogotá, 1965), 123.
3. See Rivers of Gold, chapter 36.
4. These juros played a key part in Spanish royal undertakings for the rest of the century.
5. See Earl J. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain (Cambridge, Mass.), 361.
6. See my Conquest, chapter 23.
7. Luis Arranz, Repartimientos y encomiendas en la isla Española (Madrid, 1991), 418. Mosquera, a controversial figure in La Española, had a large encomienda of 257 Indians in Santo Domingo.
8. Wright, Early History, 104.
9. A letter of lic. Zuazo to Croÿ says “quien dice que es converso,” CDI, 1: 308.
10. Two hundred forty Indians, according to Arranz, Repartimientos y encomiendas, 532.
11. Carlos Deive, La Española y la esclavitud del Indio (Santo Domingo, 1995), 141; Enrique Otte, Las perlas del Caribe (Caracas, 1977), 113.
12. Quoted in Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia, 1949), 44.
13. See my Conquest, 353.
14. See the Información de servicios y méritos of Vázquez de Ayllón, in AGI Patronato leg. 63, r. 24.
15. AGI Patronato, leg. 170, r. 39.
16. AGI Indif. Gen., leg. 421, lib. 2.
17. Vicente de Cadenas, Carlos I de Castilla, señor de las Indias (Madrid, 1988), 212.
18. See the coat of arms of Cortés, which can be seen in the Revista de Indias, 1948, with its heads of dead monarchs.
19. José Manuel Lucía Megías, Antología de libros de caballerías castellanos (Alcalá de Henares, 2001), 134, 275.
20. The first council was composed of García de Loaisa, Dr. Beltrán, and bishops Maldonado and Cabeza de Vaca, with Cobos and Samano as secretaries and Gattinara as an occasional visitor.
21. Giménez Fernández, Las Casas, 1: 59.
22. Antonio-Miguel Bernal, La financiación de la carrera de Indias (Seville, 1992), 164. The Basque merchants were probably Nicolás Sánchez de Aramburu and Domingo de Alzola.