The Dramaturgy of Senecan Tragedy

by Thomas; Kohn

  Ulixes enters (adest Ulixes, 522), deep in thought (dubio gradu vultuque, 522–23), and weaving plots (nectit pectore astus callidos, 523), accompanied by mute attendants. At line 523, he speaks, addressing Andromache directly, as is indicated by second-person verbs (e.g., credas, 526) and the vocative (Andromacha, 533). Suddenly, starting at line 607, he talks to himself (quid agis, Ulixe? 607), weighing his options. He watches Andromache closely as she mourns, weeps, and groans (maeret, illacrimat, gemit, 615), paces back and forth anxiously (huc et illuc anxios gressus refert, 616), and listens for the cries of her son (missasque voces aure sollicita excipit, 617). At line 619, Ulixes resumes talking to Andromache. She is gripped with fear and grows faint (reliquit animus membra, 623). Her limbs shake (quatiuntur, 623, and intremuit, 625), and she collapses as, once again, her blood goes cold (labant torpetque vinctus frigido sanguis gelu, 623–24). Ulixes then orders his silent attendants to pretend to look for Astyanax (ite, ite celeres! 627). At one point, he pretends that the boy has been taken (bene est! tenetur. perge, festina, attrahe, 630), in order to fool Andromache into giving something away. She looks around and trembles (quid respicis trepidasque? 631). Emotions run high on both sides, reflected by an increase in midline interruptions. Andromache threatens to resist and even offers violence to the Achaeans (671–77); but her words do not translate into actions. They seem, however, to have affected the attendants, who, moved by her tears (flebilis clamor, 678) and rage (furor feminae, 679), have evidently stopped their sham search (cessatis, 678) and must be commanded to resume (iussa ocius peragite, 679–80). Andromache next demands to be stabbed (me, me sternite hic ferro prius, 680), pointing to the spot where she wants the wound and emphasizing it with the duplicated me.29 But she is pushed aside by the attendants (repellor, 681). Now she hallucinates the ghost of Hector (cernitis, Danai, Hectorem? an sola video? 684–85), but Ulixes will brook no supernatural nonsense (funditus cuncta eruam, 685). Finally, she falls to her knees in supplication (ad genua accido supplex, 691–92) and touches his feet with her right hand (dextram pedibus admoveo tuis, 693). But his only response is a command to produce her son from hiding (exhibe natum et roga, 704) or watch as he dismantles the tomb.

  After a brief pause, the deep grief of having to choose between her living son and her husband's tomb causes Andromache to switch to anapests (705–35), the same meter that Hecuba and the Chorus used for their laments in the first episode. She calls to the hidden Astyanax to leave his hiding place (huc e latebris procede tuis, 705), and the boy soon returns via the center doors (hic est, hic est terror, 707). He holds out his hands (submitte manus, 708) and touches the feet of Ulixes with his right hand in supplication (dominique pedes supplice dextra stratus adora, 708–9). Further, he assumes the proper behaviors of a captive, including falling on bended knee (gere captivum positoque genu, 715). Both he and his mother weep (matris fletus imitare tuae, 717). Finally, Astyanax prostrates himself before Ulixes (iacet ante pedes supplex, 732–33). At line 736, the Ithacan speaks, reverting back to iambic trimeter; he has been moved by Andromache's display of sadness and terror (matris maeror attonitae movet, 736). She does much pointing and gesticulating (has, has ruinas…hic…hae, 739–40). And she begs to be allowed to hug her son one last time (amplexu ultimo, 761), a request that Ulixes grants (762–65), followed by much weeping (rumpe iam fletus, parens, 785). Astyanax speaks, only two words (miserere, mater, 792), and never again.30 He clings to his mother's hands and the folds of her clothing (quid meos retines sinus manusque occupas? 792–93). Andromache responds with kisses, tears, and bits of her hair that she has torn from her head (oscula et fletus, puer, lacerosque crines excipe, 799–800); she makes one final request: that Astyanax take off his tunic and leave it behind, as a memento for her (relinque vestem, 810). Ulixes speaks for the last time and exits after line 813, using the wing leading to the ruins of Troy. He takes his attendants, the Old Man,31 and Astyanax with him. Andromache appears in the next episode, and so remains onstage.

  THIRD CHORAL SONG (814–60)

  Following the departure of the men, the Chorus trades places with Andromache at line 814, moving forward as she retreats to the scaenae frons. The song, in minor sapphics, concludes with an address to Hecuba (Hecabe, 859), indicating that she has entered. The audience would properly assume that she will speak to begin the next act; but once again, expectations are disappointed, as, even though she is present, she remains silent at first. Hecuba and Helen, along with a mute Polyxena, enter together through the wing leading to the ruins of Troy, Andromache moves forward, and the Chorus retreats to scaenae frons.32

  ACT 4 (861–1008)

  Action units: (1) Helen prepares a mute Polyxena for her “marriage.” (2) Andromache hurls abuse at the Spartan woman. (3) Hecuba joins the discussion. (4) Pyrrhus arrives to take Polyxena to her death.

  At line 861, Helen speaks, identifying herself (Helena, 863) and directly addressing Polyxena several times (e.g., Dardaniae domus generosa virgo, 871–72, and Polyxene miseranda, 942). The Achaeans have commanded Helen to get Polyxena ready for her so-called marriage to Achilles in the proper Greek fashion (ego cultus dare habitusque Graios, 865–66). She does this throughout the episode, accomplishing such tasks as styling her hair (deprime horrentis comas crinemque docta patere distingui manu, 884–85) and applying makeup. Although such props as an assortment of combs and brushes are not explicitly mentioned, we can imagine their presence. Polyxena had been wearing the squalid attire of a captured slave (depone cultus squalidos, 883), which she now changes for clothes more suitable for a wedding (festos cape, 883). Besides her appearance and her clothing, Polyxena must also change her behavior and unlearn how to be a prisoner (dedisce captam, 884); that is, she must stop the lamenting and breast-beating that she had been engaging in.

  Andromache delivers a monologue (888–902), in which she, among other things, verbally attacks Helen and suggests that the wedding be celebrated properly: with laments and moanings (celebrate digne: planctus et gemitus sonet, 902). During the ensuing exchange of speeches, Helen is so upset, she can scarcely hold back the tears (vix lacrimas queo retinere, 925–26), while Andromache thinks she is up to something (926–37). Polyxena, however, suddenly cheers up as she learns that, instead of actually having to marry an Achaean, she is about to die (vide ut animus ingens laetus audierit necem, 945). The girl now wants to dress suitably (cultus decoros regiae vestis petit, 946) and allows her hair to be styled (et admoveri crinibus patitur manum, 947).

  But Hecuba, who has been standing by silently this whole time, is stunned and groans audibly (at misera luctu mater audito stupet, 949); indeed, Andromache fears that her mother-in-law's mind has gone (labefacta mens succubuit, 950). But she recovers (spirat, revixit, 954) and begins to speak at line 955, engaging in three-way dialogue, during which Polyxena weeps (inrigat fletus genas imberque victo subitus e vultu cadit, 965–66).

  Finally, a sneering Pyrrhus runs in quickly (sed incitato Pyrrhus accurrit gradu vultuque torvo, 999–1000). He does not speak,33 but merely seizes Polyxena. He pauses for a moment (Pyrrhe, quid cessas? 1000), but only for a moment. He drags the seized Polyxena away (abreptam trahit, 1003) through the wing leading to the ruins of Troy. Helen goes with them.

  FOURTH CHORAL SONG (1009–55)

  At line 1009, the Chorus steps forward and sings, again in minor sapphics. Andromache leads Hecuba back to the scaena frons, where both of them remain throughout the song. The Chorus concludes at line 1055.

  ACT 5 (1056–1179)

  Action units: (1) An unnamed Messenger recounts the noble deaths of Astyanax and Polyxena, (2) and then orders the Trojan Women to go to the Achaean ships, which are ready to leave Troy.

  At line 1056, a Messenger enters from the wing leading to the ruins of Troy. He is unnamed and unidentified,34 but must be an Achaean soldier. The Chorus withdraws to the scaenae frons,35 while Hecuba and Andromache move forward, both engaging in dialogue with the Messenger throughout this final act. At line 1068, he begins his
account of the deaths of Astyanax and Polyxena, staying in iambic trimeter, and not changing to another meter, such as trochees, which Seneca sometimes uses to describe unpleasant events.36

  The drama concludes with the Messenger commanding the Trojan women to go to the ships (repetite celeri maria, captivae, gradu, 1178), which are ready to sail. He leads the way, as Hecuba, Andromache, and the Chorus exit through the wing leading to the Achaean ships. They either go out in silence or continue the soft moaning they have maintained throughout the entire play, leaving the stage empty.

  Conclusions

  The most obvious precursor for Seneca's play is Euripides' Troades (ca. 415 BCE). But aside from the lamenting Hecuba and Chorus in the beginning37 and a focus on the death of Astyanax, the Roman play does not seem much indebted to the Athenian. Fantham suggests Euripides' Hecuba (ca 424 BCE) as a model for Seneca's decision to deal with the twin fates of Polyxena and Astyanax.38 Sophocles' lost Polyxena is another possible source.39 But it seems more likely that Seneca used a variety of sources, including the above-mentioned Attic tragedies, the epic tradition,40 and Roman drama.41

  Seneca has created a play that is not as concerned with the fine points of dramatic storytelling as with showing the horrors of the aftermath of war. As in the case of the Hercules Furens, this play itself reflects the mood of the title character, specifically the captive Trojan women. The uncertainties of setting and staging that so bother modern critics42 show the Chorus' mental state to the audience. The women neither know nor care where they are. They only know that they are helpless and soon to be transported from one place to another by the whim of fate, which is shown graphically in the abrupt changes of setting from the tents of the captives, to the camp of the victorious Greeks, to the tomb of Achilles, and back to the tents. Fantham's complaint that the Chorus does not seem to be aware of things that were discussed in their presence is easily explained:43 the captive women are experiencing the kind of shock that would be expected for people who have just witnessed the destruction of all they have ever known, and do not fully comprehend what is going on around them. Throughout the drama, there is one constant: the Chorus, which serves as the tie that binds together what could otherwise be regarded as separate and loosely connected vignettes. The Trojan women, then, are truly the title characters, and, similar to Seneca's Oedipus and Phaedra, are present for most if not all of the drama, and provide the audience with the lens through which to see the play's actions.

  CHAPTER 8

  Thyestes

  Two mute actors are necessary to portray two of the sons of Thyestes in act 3.

  In acts 2–5, one actor must portray Atreus exclusively, while a second is reserved for Thyestes. The third actor is assigned Atreus' Henchman, the younger Tantalus, and the Messenger. This leaves act 1, the prologue. Sutton gives the Ghost of Tantalus to the same actor who plays Atreus, and the Fury to the same man who has the three smaller roles.1 This is certainly a possibility, since the first choral song gives plenty of time for the actors to exit, change masks, get to the proper place for their entrance, and even have a quick drink. But I would make a different suggestion, based on the behavior and personalities of the supernatural beings. Tarrant notes that “their [i.e., Tantalus and the Fury's] struggle parallels and symbolically anticipates Atreus' victory over Thyestes.”2 The Ghost of Tantalus is reluctant from the start. He would prefer to return to his eternal torments in the Underworld than cause even more trouble for his family. The Fury, on the other hand, is the instigator of the whole business, eager to inflict far greater horrors upon the House. Similarly, Thyestes is the reluctant brother. He has to be talked into accepting Atreus' hospitality and unwittingly eats his own sons. Atreus is the brains behind the tragedy. His is the idea, and his is the hand that kills the children. It seems, then, that Thyestes and the Ghost of Tantalus are kindred spirits, while Atreus and the Fury are cut from the same cloth. Indeed, in a symbolic sense, and only in a symbolic sense, the Ghost is Thyestes, while the Fury is Atreus. It would, therefore, be both quite appropriate and immensely powerful to assign the roles accordingly and give the Ghost to the actor playing Thyestes, and the Fury to the actor who portrays Atreus.

  Throughout the play, there is no indication who the Chorus is or what it wants. The only clue is that is seems to have pity for the royal house of Mycenae, and for the city itself. It may, therefore, consist of Mycenaean citizens, perhaps even elders.3

  A trap door is required for the entrance of the Ghost of Tantalus.4

  Dramaturgical Issues

  ACT 1 (1–121)

  Action unit: Compelled by an unnamed Fury, the Ghost of Tantalus has been reluctantly brought back from the Underworld to his home in Mycenae, so that his presence may stir up more trouble between his grandsons, the brothers Atreus and Thyestes.

  At line 1, the Ghost of Tantalus rises from the trap door, to stand on the stage floor.5 When the Fury interrupts his monologue in the middle of line 23, she seems familiar with what he has been saying, and so it is likely that she has also been present from the beginning.6 The Ghost identifies himself (Tantalo, 3), and asks who has brought him to the surface world (1–4), a question he would not pose if he and the Fury were in physical proximity, or indeed if she had fetched him from the Underworld herself. The Fury must be a longtime resident of the palace, having contributed to the acts of cruelty and deception committed by Atreus and Thyestes against each other for many years, and so it is sensible for her to emerge from the center doors.7 The Ghost tries to escape, but the Fury stops him in his tracks (siste! quo praeceps ruis?67). The two alternate speaking, with several midline interruptions (23, 83, 86). The Ghost prays to Jupiter (magne divorum parens, 90), using appropriate hand gestures, then states his intention to remain standing in his current spot and not participate in the incipient villainy (stabo et arcebo scelus, 95). But inevitably, he gives in and succumbs to the Fury's compulsion (sequor, 100). The feelings of dread and helplessness are reinforced by the fact that line 100 consists solely of this word: Tantalus simply says “I follow,” leaving the remaining line of trimeter to be completed in silence. The Fury responds by pointing (hunc, hunc, 101), before ordering the Ghost to return to the Underworld (gradere ad infernos specus, 105). He obeys, exiting through the trap door.8 She remains a bit longer, finally returning into the palace via the center doors following her last words after line 121.9

  FIRST CHORAL SONG (122–75)

  At line 122, the Chorus enters,10 singing in minor sapphics, from the wing leading to the forum. It withdraws to the scaenae frons after concluding the song at line 175.11

  ACT 2 (176–335)

  Action unit: Atreus and his Henchman devise a horrific plot against Thyestes.

  Atreus enters at line 176 from the palace through the center doors with a Henchman, but speaks to himself. He identifies himself (iratus Atreus, 180) early on. The Henchman interrupts in the middle of line 204, and dialogue ensues with frequent midline interruptions.12 Atreus calls upon the host of Furies (dira furiarum cohors, 250), ironically, of course, since at least one is already there. He burns with rage, but not nearly enough to satisfy him (non satis magno meum ardet furore pectus, 252–53). Atreus is seized (rapior, 261), not just by inspiration, but also by visions. He describes hallucinations:13 Nature running wild and Thyestes eating his own children. Atreus begins to have second thoughts (anime, quid rursus times et ante rem subsidis? 283–84), and the Henchman confesses that he, too, is afraid (ista nostro in pectore fides timorque, 334–35). But it is to no avail. Atreus will carry out his plans (sed magis claudet fides, 335). After these final words, Atreus and the Henchman exit through the center doors into the palace.

  SECOND CHORAL SONG (336–403)

  At line 336, the Chorus steps forward and begins to sing in glyconics.14 At line 403, it concludes its song and returns to the scaenae from15

  ACT 3 (404–545)

  Action units: (1) Thyestes is reluctant to return to Mycenae. (2) His son, inauspiciously called Tantalus, pe
rsuades his father to think of his children and to accept the overtures of Atreus. (3) Atreus gloats that the trap is about to be sprung, (4) before he welcomes his brother and nephews, and ushers them into the palace.

  At line 404, Thyestes enters with his sons: Tantalus, the mute Plisthenes, and a third who is unnamed and equally mute.16 They have been in exile, and so come through the wing leading to foreign parts. Thyestes speaks, although he remains unidentified for quite some time (Thyesten, 476). He sees the buildings of the city of his birth (optata patriae tecta [cerno], 404), but only walks forward reluctantly (moveo nolentem gradum, 420).

  After a pause, Tantalus, the son of Thyestes, speaks, observing that his father has first slowed down, and then stopped completely (pigro genitor incessu stupet, 421). They are still close to the wing, at the side of the stage. Dialogue ensues between the two, with much midline interrupting. Thyestes looks back the way they came (vultumque versat seque in incerto tenet, 422), frozen in indecision and wrestling with his thoughts (423–28). He is afraid (sed timeo tamen, 435). His whole body trembles, and his knees are weak (pigris membra sed genibus labant, 436). Finally, he indicates that he will proceed to the palace, but his sons must lead the way (ego vos sequor, non duco, 489). Tantalus, in response, instructs his father to proceed with confidence (perge non dubio gradu, 490).

  At line 491, Atreus enters from the palace via the center doors. He speaks to himself. He can clearly see his brother and nephews, but they have not yet reached center stage, and so he neither addresses them, nor can they hear him. Thyestes' hair is weighed down by much filth and he has a sad expression (aspice, ut multo gravis squalore vultus obruat maestos coma, 505–6), along with a beard, befouled and drooping (foeda iaceat barba, 507).