30. Washington National Intelligencer, February 7, 1844; cf. numerous instances of such reasoning recorded in James L. Huston, Calculating the Value of Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003), 49–57.
31. Washington National Intelligencer, February 17, 1844; Donald Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the U.S. Government’s Relations with Slavery (New York, 2001), 220–221. Story tried to limit the scope of his decision to fugitive slave cases, but he concurred that constitutional protection of the property rights of enslavers was a bargain without which “the Union could never have been formed.” For a pro-Lochner take on the later use of substantive due process, see David E. Bernstein, Rehabilitating Lochner: Defending Individual Rights Against Progressive Reform (Chicago, 2011); for a critical view, see Cass Sunstein, “Lochner’s Legacy,” Columbia Law Review 87 (1987): 873–919.
32. Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 533–539.
33. Thomas Hart Benton, Thirty Years’ View, Or, A History of the Working of the American Government for Thirty Years, from 1820 to 1850 (New York, 1854–1856), 2:695–696.
34. CG, February 19, 1847, 453–455.
35. New Bedford Mercury, October 1, 1847; Gloucester Telegraph, October 28, 1846; CG, January 4, 1848; Reginald Horsman, “Scientific Racism and the American Indian in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,” American Quarterly 27 (1975): 152–168.
36. Joseph G. Rayback, Free Soil: The Election of 1848 (Lexington, KY, 1971); Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 608–610.
37. Joel Silbey, Party over Section: The Rough and Ready Election of 1848 (Lawrence, KS, 2009).
38. David Potter, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (New York, 1976), 83–85; “Address . . .,” JCC, 26:239–241.
39. “Remarks . . . Southern Caucus,” January 15, 1849, JCC, 26:216–217.
40. J. Mills Thornton, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800–1860 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1978), 206–207: Montgomery Advertiser, November 21, 1849, February 12, 1851; Collin S. Tarpley to John C. Calhoun, May 9, 1849, JCC, 26:395–396; Calhoun to Tarpley, July 9, 1849, JCC, 26:497–498; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion (New York, 1990), 1:479–486; Thelma Jennings, The Nashville Convention: Southern Movement for Unity, 1848–1851 (Memphis, TN, 1980), 3–40.
41. CG, January 8, 1849, 188; Ralph Keller, “Extraterritoriality and the Fugitive Slave Debate,” Illinois Historical Journal 78 (1985): 113–128; Bestor, “State Sovereignty”; Fehrenbacher, Slaveholding Republic, 226–227.
42. Jackson Mississippian, November 30, 1849, October 5, 1849, in Freehling, Road to Disunion, 1:480–481.
43. New Hampshire Patriot, January 18, 1850; Jennings, Nashville Convention, 13–42; Holman Hamilton, “The ‘Cave of the Winds’ and the Compromise of 1850,” JSH 23 (1957): 331–353.
44. Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 637–645; Potter, Impending Crisis.
45. CG, Senate, 31st Cong., 1st sess., March 11, 1850, 269.
46. Holman Hamilton, “Texas Bonds and Northern Profits: A Study in Compromise, Investment, and Lobby Influence,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43 (1957): 579–594.
47. Potter, Impending Crisis, 114.
48. Holman Hamilton, Prologue to Conflict: The Crisis and Compromise of 1850 (Lexington, KY, 1964), 166; CG, December 2, 1850, 5; Potter, Impending Crisis, 125–128; Christopher J. Olsen, Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860 (New York, 2000).
49. Robert R. Russel, “What Was the Compromise of 1850?” JSH 22 (1956): 292–309.
CHAPTER 10. ARMS: 1850–1861
1. Robert Farrar Capon, The Parables of Grace (Grand Rapids, MI, 1988), 19–30.
2. Charles L. Perdue Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Phillips, eds., Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves (Charlottesville, VA, 1976), 270–273.
3. S. Wilkes to D. & H., July 11, 1855, R. H. Dickinson Papers, Chicago Historical Society; Sharon Ann Murphy, Investing in Life: Insurance in Antebellum America (Baltimore, 2010); Jonathan Levy, Freaks of Fortune: The Emerging World of Capitalism and Risk in America (Cambridge, MA, 2012); W. A. Britton Record Book, LLMVC; NOP, January 26, 1854; Calvin Schermerhorn, Money over Mastery: Family over Freedom: Slavery in the Antebellum Upper South (Baltimore, 2011).
4. Lulu Wilson, AS, 5.4 (TX), 192.
5. Frederick Law Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveler’s Observations on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States (New York, 1861); Jonathan D. Wells, The Origins of the Southern Middle Class, 1800–1861 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004). Later, Olmsted became America’s most famous landscape architect; he was the creator of Manhattan’s Central Park, among other famous places.
6. Louis Hughes, Thirty Years a Slave: The Institution of Slavery as Seen on the Plantation and in the Home of a Planter (Milwaukee, WI, 1897), 78.
7. Olmsted, Cotton Kingdom, 216–217, 229–230.
8. “Address Before the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society,” September 30, 1859, LINCOLN, 3:471–482.
9. Olmsted, Cotton Kingdom, 278; Robert McCardell, The Idea of a Southern Nation: Southern Nationalists and Southern Nationalism, 1830–1860 (New York, 1979), 122–123; L. Diane Barnes, Brian Schoen, and Frank Towers, eds., The Old South’s Modern Worlds: Slavery, Region, and Nation in the Age of Progress (New York, 2011).
10. “J.C.N.,” “Future of South,” DeBow’s Review 2, no. 2 (1851): 132–146, 142; US Department of Commerce, US Census Bureau, 1860 Census, vol. 4, 295; J. D. B. DeBow, Statistical View of the United States, Being a Compendium of the Seventh Census (Washington, DC, 1854), 190–191.
11. James L. Huston, Calculating the Value of Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003), 26, 30, 32n10; Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 85–86; Richard Easterlin, “Interregional Differences in Per Capita Income, Population, and Total Income, 1840–1950,” Trends in the American Economy in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1960).
12. “Southern Manufactures,” DeBow’s Review, June 1855, 777–791; “Autaugaville Factory, Alabama,” DeBow’s Review, May 1851, 560; Fogel, Without Consent, 106–108; Fred Bateman and Thomas Weiss, A Deplorable Scarcity: The Failure of Industrialization in the Slave Economy (Chapel Hill, NC, 1981).
13. Aaron Marrs, Railroads in the Old South: Pursuing Progress in a Slave Society (Baltimore, 2009), 5; William G. Thomas, The Iron Way: Railroads, the Civil War, and the Making of Modern America (New Haven, CT, 2011); Charles C. Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South: Tenants and Laborers in Central North Carolina and Northeast Mississippi (Durham, NC, 1994); J. Mills Thornton, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800–1860 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1978); Lacy K. Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800–1860 (New York, 1988); “A Vagabond’s Tale: Poor Whites, Herrenvolk Democracy, and the Value of Whiteness in the Late Antebellum South,” JSH 79 (2013): 799–840.
14. Robert E. Gallman, “The United States Capital Stock in the Nineteenth Century,” in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman, eds., Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 165–214; Richard H. Kilbourne, Debt, Investment, and Slaves: Credit Relations in East Feliciana Parish, 1825–1885 (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1995), 26–68. Kilbourne shows how factors became middlemen for credit relationships collateralized by enslaved bodies.
15. Ralph Hidy, The House of Baring in American Trade and Finance: English Merchant Bankers at Work, 1763–1861 (Cambridge, MA, 1949), 355–450; John Killick, “The Cotton Operations of Alexander Brown and Sons in the Deep South, 1820–1860,” JSH 43 (1977); Harold D. Woodman, King Cotton and His Retainers: Financing and Marketing the Cotton Crop of the United States, 1800–1925 (Lexington, KY, 1968), 39; Ballard Account with Nalle, Cox, 1852, Fol. 387, RCB; Pope & Devlin to W. M. Otey, July 4, 1852, Wyche-Otey Papers, SHC.
16. Bonnie Marti
n, “Slavery’s Invisible Engine: Mortgaging Human Property,” JSH 76 (2010): 817–856.
17. Oscar Zanetti and Alejandro García, et al., Sugar and Railroads: A Cuban History, 1837–1959 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1998); Dale W. Tomich, Through the Prism of Slavery: Labor, Capital, and World Economy (Lanham, MD, 2004), 75–95; Michael Zeuske and Orlando García Martínez, “La Amistad de Cuba, Ramón Ferrer, Contrabando do Esclavos, Captividad y Modernidad Atlantíca,” Caribbean Studies 37, no. 1 (2009): 119–187.
18. Jose Piqueras, ed., 2009 Trabajo Libre e Coactivo en Sociedades de Plantación (Madrid, 2009); Tomich, Prism of Slavery, 81–83.
19. Amy Greenberg, Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire (Cambridge, UK, 2005), 225–230; Robert E. May, “Lobbyists for Commercial Empire: Jane Cazneau, William Cazneau, and U.S. Caribbean History,” Pacific Historical Review 48, no. 3 (1979): 383–412; Gregg Lightfoot, “Manifesting Destiny” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 2014); Robert E. May, “Young American Males and Filibustering in the Age of Manifest Destiny: The United States Army as a Cultural Mirror,” JAH 78 (1991): 857–886; A. D. Mann to L. Keitt, August 24, 1855, Keitt Papers, Duke; Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1973), 31–38; Clarksville (TN) Jeffersonian, January 29, 1853, September 28, 1853; Howard Jones, Mutiny on the Amistad: The Saga of a Slave Revolt and Its Impact on American Abolition, Law, and Diplomacy (New York, 1987).
20. Democratic Review, September 1, 1849, 203; Louis A. Perez Jr., Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens, GA, 1990); Olmsted, Cotton Kingdom, 331–333; New Orleans Delta, May 31, 1856; Charles Henry Brown, Agents of Manifest Destiny: The Lives and Times of the Filibusters (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980), 41.
21. Yonathan Eyal, The Young America Movement and the Transformation of the Democratic Party, 1828–1861 (New York, 2007), 159–162; Daniel Rood, “Plantation Technocrats: A Social History of Knowledge in the Slaveholding Atlantic World, 1830–1865” (PhD diss., University of California at Irvine, 2010); Robert E. May, “Reconsidering Antebellum U.S. Women’s History: Gender, Filibustering, and America’s Quest for Empire,” American Quarterly 57 (2005): 1155–1188; Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill, NC, 1941); Irving Katz, August Belmont: A Political Biography (New York, 1968); Barbara Weiss, The Hell of the English: Bankruptcy and the 19th-Century Novel (Lewisburg, PA, 1986), 160.
22. Democratic Review, January 1850, September 1849, 203; Robert E. May, John Quitman: Old South Crusader (Baton Rouge, LA, 1985); Christopher J. Olsen, Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860 (New York, 2000); S. Boyd to RB, April 10, 1850, April 14, 1850, Fol. 150, and April 24, 1850, Fol. 151, RCB.
23. Brown, Agents of Manifest Destiny, 53–54; J. S. Thrasher to D. M. Barringer, July 26, 1852, D. M. Barringer Papers, SHC; Washington National Intelligencer, March 5, 1853.
24. Arkansas Gazette, December 16, 1853; Cleveland Plain Dealer, October 26, 1853; Alexandria Gazette, November 4, 1853; J. F. H. Claiborne, ed., Life and Correspondence of John A. Quitman (New York, 1860), 2:206–208.
25. C. M. Rutherford to RB, February 19, 1853, Fol. 187, RCB; May 18, 1860, Hector Davis Acct. Book, Chicago Historical Society; Bolton Dickens Acct. Book, NYHS; Philip Thomas to Wm. Finney, December 24, 1858, January 12, 1859, November 8, 1859, William Finney Papers, Duke; D. M. Pulliam to L. Scruggs, July 27, 1857, D. M. Pulliam Letters, Duke; Schermerhorn, Money over Mastery, 178–180; Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (Madison, WI, 1989), 77–79, appx. 2; Laurence J. Kotlikoff, “Quantitative Description of the New Orleans Slave Market,” in William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., Without Consent or Contract: Technical Papers (New York, 1992); Maurie McInnis, Slaves Waiting for Sale: Abolitionist Art and the American Slave Trade (Chicago, 2011).
26. Rects. Sales, 1852, Fol. 384; Memo of Sales, 1855, Fol. 397, RCB.
27. Joseph K. Menn, The Large Slaveholders of Louisiana, 1860 (New Orleans, 1964); Wendell Stephenson, Isaac Franklin: Slave Trader and Planter of the Old South; With Plantation Records (University, LA, 1938); William K. Scarborough, Masters of the Big House: Elite Slaveholders of the Mid-Nineteenth-Century South (Baton Rouge, LA, 2003), 124–135.
28. James Cobb, The Most Southern Place of Earth: The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity (New York, 1992), 3–5, 30.
29. George Young, AS, 6.1 (AL), 432; Scarborough, Masters of the Big House, 124–135; Jack Ericson Eblen, “New Estimates of the Vital Rates of the United States Black Population During the Nineteenth Century,” Demography 11 (1974): 301–319.
30. Folders 183–196, December 1852–August 1853, RCB.
31. S. G. Ward to E. Malone, May 24, 1850, Ellis Malone Papers, Duke; Wm. Williams to G. W. Allen, September 12, 1850, G. W. Allen Papers, SHC; J. Ewell to Alice Ewell, February 5, 1861, John Ewell Papers, Duke.
32. Statement of G. S. Bumpass, Bolton, Dickens, & Co., Acct. Book, NYHS; Sarah Benjamin, AS, S2, 2.1 (TX), 256–257; Sarah Wells, AS, 11.1 (AR), 89; Sarah Ashley, AS, 16.1 (TX), 34–35.
33. “List of Slaves Oct. 1845,” vol. 124; Fols. 932–937, passim; Benjamin Barber to Paul C. Cameron (PC), August 1, 1853, Fol. 1103; John Beard to PC, February 14, 1853; J. W. Bryant to PC, February 2, 1853, Fol. 1126; John Webster to PC, November 24, 1856, Fol. 1163, and December 24, 1856, Fol. 1164, all in PCC.
34. S. Tate to PC, December 26, 1856; Jas. Williamson to PC, December 26, 1856, Fol. 1164, and January 2, 1856; S. Tate to PC, January 16, 1857, Fol. 1165, all in PCC.
35. W. T. Lamb to PC, September 16, 1860, Fol. 1210, and December 4, 18, 24, 1859, Fol. 1201; A. Wright to PC, November 6, 1858, Fol. 1188, all in PCC.
36. D. F. Caldwell to PC, Fol. 1136, PCC.
37. Fol. 33, A. H. Arrington Papers, SHC; L. C. Gray and Esther K. Thompson, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (Washington, DC, 1933), 1:530.
38. Lee Soltow, Men and Wealth in the United States, 1850–1870 (New Haven, CT, 1975), 57, 142; Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1978), 30–36; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveowners (New York, 1982).
39. Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC, 2000); Ronald Takaki, A Proslavery Crusade: The Agitation to Reopen the African Slave Trade (New York, 1971).
40. “Isthmus,” DeBow’s Review, July 1852, 43–52; Jere Robinson, “The South and the Pacific Railroad, 1845–1855,” Western Historical Quarterly 5 (1974): 163–186; Stacey L. Smith, “Remaking Slavery in a Free State: Masters and Slaves in Gold Rush California,” Pacific Historical Review 80 (2011): 28–63; Susan Lee Johnson, Roaring Camp: The Social World of the California Gold Rush (New York, 2000); John C. Parish, “A Project for a California Slave Colony in 1851,” Huntington Library Bulletin, no. 8 (1935): 171–175; Leonard L. Richards, The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War (New York, 2007).
41. Brown, Agents of Manifest Destiny, 174–218.
42. David Potter, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (New York, 1976), 146–156; William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991).
43. J. A. Reinhart to Jn. Dalton, January 20, 1851, Placebo Houston Papers, Duke; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion (New York, 1990), 1:540.
44. Case 55, April 1845 term, Office of Circuit Court Clerk–St. Louis, Missouri State Archives–St. Louis, http://stlcourtrecords.wustl.edu, an excellent resource, initiated by Lea VanderVelde, accessed June 24, 2011.
45. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics (New York, 1978); Lea VanderVelde, Mrs. Dred Scott: A Life on Slavery’s Frontier (New York, 2009).
46. Freehling, Road to Disunion, 1:547–549; Thomas G. Balcerski, “The F Street Mess Reconsidered: A Hom
osocial History of the Kansas-Nebraska Act,” Unpublished paper presented at the Fall 2010 Americanist Colloquium, Cornell University.
47. Robert W. Johannsen, Stephen A. Douglas (New York, 1973); CG, 28:1, 33rd Cong. 1st sess., 115, January 4, 1854; Susan Bullit Dixon, The True History of the Missouri Compromise and Its Repeal (Cincinnati, 1899), 442–445; Potter, Impending Crisis, 160.
48. Michael F. Holt, Franklin Pierce (New York, 2010), 77–80, 53; Dixon, True History, 457–460.
49. Douglas to N. Edwards, April 13, 1854, in Robert W. Johannsen, ed., The Letters of Stephen A. Douglas (Urbana, IL, 1961), 322–323; Johannsen, Stephen A. Douglas, 420.
50. “Appeal of the Independent Democrats, to the People of the United States. Shall Slavery Be Permitted in Nebraska?” (Washington, DC, 1854); Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York, 2005), 673–674.
51. CG, March 3, 1854, 532; Roy F. Nichols, “The Kansas-Nebraska Act: A Century of Historiography,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43, no. 2 (1956): 187–212; Alan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union (New York, 1947), 2:129–130.
52. Thomas O’Connor, Lords of the Loom: The Cotton Whigs and the Coming of the Civil War (New York, 1968), 98; Foner, Business and Slavery, 91–100.
53. Potter, Impending Crisis, 175.
54. CG [appendix], March 30, 1854 (L. Keitt), 464–467; February 23, 1854 (Robert Toombs), 347–349; April 24, 1854 (Peter Phillips), 532–534; May 10, 1854 (James Dowdell), 705–706; April 27, 1854 (Wm. Smith), 553.
55. Washington National Intelligencer, June 7, 1854; Nashville Union, June 7, 1854, September 20, 1854; Jonathan Atkins, Party, Politics, and Sectional Conflict in Tennessee, 1832–1861 (Knoxville, TN, 1997), 193; Tallahassee Floridian, January 28, 1854; Alexandria Gazette, April 15, 1854.
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