56. Trenton Gazette, October 5, 1854; New York Weekly Herald, December 16, 1854; Tallahassee Floridian and Sentinel, November 18, 1854; Brown, Agents of Manifest Destiny, 267–457; Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:166; NOP, December 13, 1854.
57. New York Tribune, September 25, 1854; Nicole Etcheson, Bleeding Kansas: Contested Liberty in the Civil War Era (Lawrence, KS, 2004), 67.
58. Etcheson, Bleeding Kansas, 97; New Hampshire Sentinel, December 28, 1855; Eufaula (AL) Spirit of the South, in Charleston Mercury, January 25, 1856.
59. Augusta Constitutionalist repr., Charleston Mercury, May 28, 1855; New York Weekly Herald, May 24, 1856.
60. Repr. St. Albans [VT] Herald, September 20, 1855; Etcheson, Bleeding Kansas, 109, 113–138.
61. Potter, Impending Crisis, 248–265.
62. Joel Silbey, The Partisan Imperative: The Dynamics of American Political Life Before the Civil War (New York, 1985); Richmond Enquirer, October 20, 1856; Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:104.
63. Austin Allen, Origins of the Dred Scott Case: Jacksonian Jurisprudence and the Supreme Court, 1837–1857 (Athens, GA, 2006), 146–147; VanderVelde, Mrs. Dred Scott, 288–289; Kenneth Stampp, 1857: A Nation on the Brink (New York, 1990), 149–170.
64. Fehrenbacher, Dred Scott, 50–61.
65. Allen, Origins of the Dred Scott Case, 179.
66. New York Tribune, March 7, 9–12, 16–17, 19–21, 25, 1857, April 11, 1857; Fehrenbacher, Dred Scott, 403–414.
67. Fehrenbacher, Dred Scott, is the most obvious critique and collates the opinions of various historians.
68. Washington Union, March 6, 11, 12, 1857; New York Journal of Commerce, March 11, 1857; New York Herald, March 8, 1857; NOP, March 20, 1857; Fehrenbacher, Dred Scott, 418–419.
69. Speech at Springfield, Illinois, June 26, 1857, LINCOLN 2:404.
70. “Lecompton Constitution,” Daniel Wilder, Annals of Kansas (Topeka, 1875), 183; Stampp, 1857, 171, 271.
71. Charles Calomiris and Larry Schweikart, “The Panic of 1857: Origins, Transmission, and Containment,” Journal of Economic History 54, no. 4 (1991): 807–834; Mississippi Free Trader, November 6, 1857; James L. Huston, The Panic of 1857 and the Coming of the Civil War (Baton Rouge, LA, 1987), 63 (cf. 60); Foner, Business and Slavery, 139–147.
72. “Speech at Hartford, Conn., Mar. 5, 1860,” LINCOLN, 4:5–6.
73. “House Divided Speech,” June 18, 1858, LINCOLN, 2:461; August 21, 1858, LINCOLN, 3:27.
74. For examples of selective reading of Lincoln to “prove” his racism, see George Frederickson, Big Enough to Be Inconsistent: Abraham Lincoln Confronts Slavery and Race (Cambridge, MA, 2008); Lerone Bennett, Forced into Glory: Abraham Lincoln’s White Dream (Chicago, 2000).
75. LINCOLN, 2:461; Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:130–135; Robert Remini, The House: The History of the House of Representatives (New York, 2006), 155; Alexandria Gazette, April 4, 1858.
76. Douglas to J. McClernand, February 21, 1858, in Johannsen, Douglas Letters, 417.
77. Harriet Newby to Dangerfield Newby, August 16, 1859, in Governor’s Message and Reports, 116–117, Library of Virginia, Richmond, www.lva.virginia.gov/public/trailblazers/res/Harriet_Newby_Letters.pdf, accessed March 7, 2014.
78. Four escaped, and three others fled the Maryland farm hideout where they had stayed as a rear guard. Two of these seven were captured and hanged. Four of the surviving five fought for the Union, of whom two were killed.
79. Charleston Mercury, January 4, 1860: Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:214; Barre Gazette, December 23, 1859; Farmers’ Cabinet, January 11, 1860; Ollinger Crenshaw, “The Psychological Background of the Election of 1860,” North Carolina Historical Review 19 (1942): c. 260; Peter Wallenstein, “Incendiaries All . . . etc.,” in Paul Finkelman, ed., His Soul Goes Marching On: Responses to John Brown and the Harpers Ferry Raid (Charlottesville, VA, 1995).
80. Henry David Thoreau, “A Plea for Captain John Brown,” 1859, www.gutenberg.org/files/2567/2567-h/2567-h.htm, accessed October 26, 2013.
81. Potter, Impending Crisis, PIC, 403; Nevins, Ordeal of the Union, 2:179; Baltimore Sun, April 17, 1860; Ph. Thomas to Finney, January 24, 1859, W. Finney Papers, Duke; Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:220–221, 246–287.
82. Montgomery Confederation, April 26, 1860; Robert B. Rhett to William P. Miles, January 29, 1860, Miles Papers, SHC; Thornton, Politics and Power, 381–391.
83. Wisconsin Daily Patriot, May 9, 1860; Cleveland Plain Dealer, May 9, 1860.
84. William Hesseltine, Three Against Lincoln: Murat Halstead Reports the Caucuses of 1860 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1960), 230; Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:318; Annapolis Gazette, June 21, 1860.
85. David Donald, Lincoln (New York, 1995); Douglas Wilson, Honor’s Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln (New York, 1998); Harry V. Jaffa, Crisis of the House Divided: An Interpretation of the Issues in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates (Garden City, NJ, 1959); Harry V. Jaffa, A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War (Lanham, MD, 2000); and especially William Lee Miller, Lincoln’s Virtues: An Ethical Biography (New York, 2002).
86. Jon Grinspan, “‘Young Men for War’: The Wide Awakes and Lincoln’s 1860 Presidential Campaign,” JAH 96 (2009): 357–378; Potter, Impending Crisis, 432–447.
87. Sinha, Counterrevolution, 219–220.
88. Ralph Wooster, “An Analysis of the Membership of Secession Conventions in the Lower South,” JSH 24, no. 3 (1958): 360–368; Stephanie McCurry, Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South (Cambridge, MA, 2010); Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 768–773, 944n3; Stephen Channing, Crisis of Fear: Secession in South Carolina (New York, 1970); William L. Barney, The Secessionist Impulse: Alabama and Mississippi in 1860 (Princeton, NJ, 1974); Michael P. Johnson, Toward a Patriarchal Republic: The Secession of Georgia (Baton Rouge, LA, 1977); Edward E. Baptist, Creating an Old South: Middle Florida’s Plantation Frontier Before the Civil War (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002); Douglas R. Egerton, Year of Meteors: Stephen Douglas, Abraham Lincoln, and the Election That Brought the Civil War (New York, 2010); Shearer Davis Bowman, At the Precipice: Americans North and South During the Secession Crisis (Chapel Hill, NC, 2010).
89. John Forsyth to Stephen Douglas, December 28, 1860, in Johannsen, Stephen A. Douglas, 246. Charles B. Dew, in Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War (Charlottesville, VA, 2001), explains the “states’ rights” revisionists’ argument and then demolishes it by demonstrating that the conventions’ message was that by electing Lincoln, “revolutionary” Republicans had signaled that they planned to destroy slavery and white supremacy. See also David Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA, 2003), for the roots of reinterpretation of secession’s causes.
90. Dew, Apostles of Disunion, 56–58, 85. “Equality,” etc., is from address of William Harris, Commissioner from Mississippi, to Georgia General Assembly, December 17, 1860.
91. Daniel W. Crofts, Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989); Potter, Impending Crisis, 508–510.
92. Potter, Impending Crisis, 528–533.
93. Potter, Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis (New Haven, CT, 1942).
94. Lincoln to James T. Hale, January 11, 1861, LINCOLN 4:172.
95. Thoreau, “Plea for Captain Brown.” One Confederate soldier would be killed after the fort surrendered, while setting off celebratory cannon salutes.
AFTERWORD. THE CORPSE: 1861–1937
1. Delia Garlic, AS, 6.1, (AL), 129.
2. Sven Beckert, “‘Emancipation and Empire’: Reconstructing the Worldwide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War,” AHR 109 (2004): 1405–1438; Gabriel Baer, “Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Egypt,” Journal of African History 8, no. 3 (1967): 426.
3. Vermont Investors to Sec’y of the Treasury, February 3, 1862, Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867 (Freedom and South
ern History Project, University of Maryland, 1985–2013), ser. 1, vol. 3, 124–151; E. S. Philbrick to a Massachusetts Businessman, April 12, 1862, FSSP, ser. 1, vol. 3, 182–187; HQ 2 Brigade SC Expeditionary Corps to Supt. Contrabands at Beaufort, SC, April 4, 1862, FSSP, 1/3, 180–181.
4. E. S. Philbrick to MA businessman, April 12, 1862, FSSP, ser. 1, vol. 3, 182–187; R. Saxton, Military Govr., Gnl. Order #12, December 20, 1862, FSSP, 1/3, 222–224; E. S. Philbrick to Direct-tax Commissioner for SC, January 14, 1864, FSSP, 1/3, 278–279.
5. James Oakes, Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861–1865 (New York, 2013), emphasizes the Republican Party’s commitment to a national ideal of emancipation.
6. Frederick Douglass, “Should the Negro Enlist in the U.S. Army,” speech delivered July 6, 1863.
7. Dep. of Felo Battee, May 29, 1865, in Thomas Hamilton, #255536, and Andre Dupree, #492774, both Record Group 15, Records of the Department of Veterans Affairs, National Archives, Washington, DC.
8. Abram Blue, #131.901, #946.653, Record Group 15, Records of the Department of Veterans Affairs, National Archives, Washington, DC; cf. Nancy Bercaw, Gendered Freedoms: Race, Rights, and the Politics of Household in the Delta, 1861–1875 (Gainesville, FL, 2003).
9. This, plus a long slow decline in agricultural commodity prices after 1870, helped to ensure that for many people, sharecropping became a kind of debt peonage that eventually trapped three consecutive generations of African Americans in the cotton country in extraordinary poverty. See Gavin Wright, Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy After the Civil War (New York, 1986).
10. Laura Free, Gendering the Constitution: Manhood, Race, Woman Suffrage, and the Fourteenth Amendment (Philadelphia, 2014).
11. Harry Bates, Cotton: History, Species, Varieties, Morphology, Breeding, Culture, Diseases, Marketing, and Uses (New York, 1927), 151–152, 323; Warren C. Whatley, “Southern Agrarian Labor Contracts as Impediments to Cotton Mechanization,” Journal of Economic History 47, no. 1 (1987): 45–70; William L. Shea and Edwin Pelz, “A German Prisoner of War in the South: The Memoir of Edwin Pelz,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 44, no. 1 (1985): 42–55, esp. 52–53; Steven Hahn, A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA, 2003), 424–425; David Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War and American Memory (Cambridge, MA, 2003).
12. It would be impossible to list all of the great works on the post–Civil War history of the South, but these two paragraphs build above all on traditions of scholarship that include the following: W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago, 1903); W. E. B. DuBois, Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay Toward the Part Which Black Folks Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880 (New York, 1935); C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1951); Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York, 1988); Edward L. Ayers, The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction (New York, 1992); Glenda Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996); David Cecelski and Timothy Tyson, eds., Democracy Betrayed: The Wilmington Race Riot of 1898 and Its Legacy (Chapel Hill, NC, 1998); Laura F. Edwards, Gendered Strife and Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction (Urbana, IL, 1998); Gregory Downs, Declarations of Dependence: The Long Reconstruction of Popular Politics in the South, 1861–1908 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2011).
13. Bill Cooke, “The Denial of Slavery in Management Studies,” Paper No. 68, Institute for Development Policy and Management, University of Manchester, http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/30566/1/dpo20068.pdf, accessed December 18, 2013.
14. Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York, 2013). Among many excellent works on lynching, see Crystal Feimster, Southern Horrors: Women and the Politics of Rape and Lynching (Cambridge, MA, 2009); Mari Nagasue Crabtree, “The Devil Is Watching You: Lynching and Southern Memory, 1940–1970” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 2014).
15. Susie King, AS, 2.4 (AR), 213; Charles L. Perdue Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Phillips, eds., Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves (Charlottesville, VA, 1976), esp. 151–154.
INDEX
Abolition/abolitionists, 185–198, 199 (photo), 268, 313, 314, 346
newspapers and, 240
/and/northern Democrats, attempts to silence, 327
Adams, John, 17, 46
Adams, John Quincy, 186–187, 226, 251, 333
expansion of slavery and, 297, 299, 304
gag rule and, 268, 297, 315
as secretary of state, 153–154, 155, 156–157
Adams-Onis Treaty, 157–158
African Americans, 414, 415–420
birthright citizenship for, 408
Christianity and, 210–213
Civil War veterans’ pensions and, 397–398, 405, 411
culture of, 145–153, 158–168, 171–172, 187–191, 416, 417
first black president and, 417
Great Migration and, 417
life expectancy of, 122, 361
marriages during Civil War and, 404–405
as soldiers in Civil War, 402–405
solidarity and, 309, 417, 419
treatment of, post-Civil War, 407–410
voting rights and, 406–407, 408, 409, 411
See also Enslaved people
Alabama, 18–19
Altruism/sharing, among enslaved people, 150–152
Amar (enslaved rebel), 57–58, 62–63, 65–66
American Colonization Society (ACS), 193
American Revolution, 4, 5, 64
American Sanitary Commission, 348
Amistad slave rebellion, 355
Anderson, Claude, 188–189, 406, 415, 419–420
Anderson, David, 75, 88
Anderson, William, 133, 149
Andrews, Ethan Allen, 184, 240
Andry, Gilbert, 58, 59, 63
Andry, Manuel, 57, 58, 59, 62
Angales, Anna, 412 (photo)
An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World (D. Walker), 195, 196
Appleton, Nathan, 317, 325
Armfield, John, 239, 240
Articles of Confederation, 7–8
Ashburton, Lord (aka Alexander Baring), 298, 299
Atchison, David, 367–368, 369, 370
Atlantic slave trade, 10–11, 39–42, 48, 355. See also International slave trade; Middle Passage; Professional slave trade/slave traders; Slave trade
Ball, Charles, 150–151, 152, 201, 206, 283
as driver on Hampton’s Georgia slave labor camp, 168
forced migration from Maryland to South Carolina and, 1–2, 16–37, 48
as cotton picker on Hampton’s South Carolina slave labor camp, 124–131
as runaway slave, 168–169
singing in a circle and, 167–168
as weeder on Hampton’s South Carolina slave labor camp, 111–124
Ballard, Rice, 234, 239–241, 243, 270, 280, 289, 357–363, 365
Bank of England, 85, 245, 246–247, 272–273
Bankruptcy, and Panic of 1837, 279–280
Bankruptcy Act, 279–280
Banks
in the 1850s, 353–354
Jackson, Andrew, and, 249–254, 256, 266, 268–269, 270
mortgaged human “property” list and, 275 (photo)
and Panic of 1837, lead-up to, 270–274
Panic of 1837 and, 274–280, 284–292
slave trade, cotton, politics and, 229–233, 238–239, 244–259
See also Second Bank of the United States
Baring Brothers, 85, 92, 245, 246, 247–248, 249, 254
Battle of Fort Sumter, 395
Battle of Horseshoe Bend, 68–69
Battle of New Orleans, 70–73, 72 (photo), 153
Battle of Tippecanoe, 278
Belmont, August,
356, 357–358
Berkeley, Elizabeth, 412 (photo)
Bibb, Henry, 118, 121, 140, 149, 313
Biddle, Nicholas, 229, 232, 238–239, 245, 249–254, 255 (photo), 256
Panic of 1837 and, 277–278
Panic of 1839 and, 291
Bieller, Jacob, 241–242, 262, 270, 286–287
Bieller, Nancy, 286–287
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 45–47, 69
Bonds, 33, 256, 295
faith bonds, 254, 255, 290
Panic of 1837 and, 285, 287, 290–292
slave bonds, 245–248, 247 (photo), 254
Bonny, Barthelemy, 173, 175, 185
Boom and bust cycle, 234–235
Booth, John Wilkes, 406–407
Boston, emancipated people in, 309–315
Boston Associates, 317–318
Boswell, William, 173, 175, 185, 187
Boyd, Samuel, 358, 359–360, 361–363
Boyd, Virginia, 359, 361–363
Brazil, 42, 297–298, 416
Breckinridge, John, 11–16, 388–389
British empire, slave emancipation and, 399. See also Great Britain; European empires
Brown, James, 52, 57
Brown, John (abolitionist), 383–386, 395
Brown, John (slave), 25, 134, 152, 190, 206–207, 375
Brown, William Wells, 162, 198, 313
Brown Brothers of New York, 272, 277
Buchanan, James, 376, 377, 381, 383, 385, 393
Butler, Andrew, 369, 375
Bynum, Jesse, 219, 222
Byrne Hammon and Company, 270
Calhoun, John C., 91–92, 156, 157, 226, 346, 373
Compromise of 1850 and, 332–333, 335, 339–340, 342
expansion of slavery and, 300–301, 302, 303
proslavery argument of, 329–332
substantive due process and, 329–331, 338, 369, 377
California, 336–337, 338–339, 340
Cameron, Paul, 363–365, 394
Campbell, Israel, 131–132, 134, 136, 211–213
Canada, 42, 68
Capitalism, xviii–xix, 42–43, 77–83, 85–92, 127–131, 141–143, 178–185, 191, 229–233, 239–243, 257–258, 292, 317–323
The Half Has Never Been Told Page 69
