The inevitable happened; the war continued and no end appeared in sight. The Japanese people, concerned with the rapid spread of open fighting in China since July 7 of the previous year, still believed optimistically that despite the Prime Minister’s obvious surrender to the Army, the war would soon end. Several leaders of our country publicly warned the government of the foreseeable grave consequences of extended fighting with China. A number of patriots in and outside of Government service openly opposed the influential Army groups which, acting through the timorous prime minister, had so effectively diverted national policy and had committed the nation to war. These protests proved of little avail, as history relates.
Thus the fighting spread rapidly, soon enveloping most of China. In January of 1938 Japanese troops triumphantly concluded the Hankow Operation; thirteen months later they controlled Hainan Island and also temporarily and successfully halted the Shansi Campaign. In the interim our naval air units flew constant sorties, mainly in southern and central China. Once the Chinese air groups retreated beyond the range of the Type 96 carrier fighters to rebuild their shattered strength, the air war became a protracted struggle confined almost entirely to the bombing attacks of the Type 96 land-based attack bombers. Despite the best intentions of our commanders, the war situation demanded the presence of the naval air units at the Chinese front, a situation in which their maximum potentialities could not possibly be developed.
CHAPTER 3
Zero Fighters in China
FOLLOWING THEIR ADVANCE in late 1938 to the Hankow Air Base, the Navy Air Force flew close-support missions for Army troops and Navy surface forces with Type 97 carrier attack bombers (Kates) and with Type 99 carrier dive bombers (Vals). The Type 96 land-based attack bombers (Nells) bombed Chungking and other interior bases. The Type 96 carrier fighters (Claudes) defended our air bases and engaged enemy fighters whenever the Chinese pilots ventured within the range of the Claudes.
Between May and September of 1939, the Nells attacked Chungking from Hankow bases with twenty-two separate raids, aggregating an overtarget total of two hundred bombers. On November 4, 1939, Nells flew from the Hankow bases to attack Chengtu, and from late November to late December the Nells flew from Yucheng bases in Shansi to raid Lanchow (in Kansu).
The continuous aerial assaults noticeably weakened the Chinese Air Force’s offensive power. Despite the effectiveness of the attacks, however, within six months we noticed definite signs of recovery. From mid-May to early September of 1940 Nells repeatedly battered the Chungking area. There were in the Hankow area in mid-1940 130 Type 96 bombers assigned to the four China-based air corps—Kanoya, Takao, the 13th, and the 15th. Every flyable airplane flew in each mission against Chungking for a total of 168 daytime attacks and 14 night raids, aggregating 3,717 bombers over target.
These were the heaviest raids of the China air war. On eight raids, Army Type 97’s joined the Nells, aggregating seventy-two planes over target. The limited range of the Claude fighters prevented them from escorting the bombers to their objectives, where waiting Chinese fighters pounced upon the raiders. We suffered heavy losses; nine planes were destroyed or missing, and a total of 297 bombers were damaged. During some raids the percentage of lost or damaged bombers rose beyond the “prohibitive” figure of 10 per cent. The Chinese fighters inflicted at least half the damage sustained by our bombers, while antiaircraft fire was responsible for the remainder. We could alleviate this unsatisfactory situation only by securing command of the air over the targets.
The Zeros were the answer. With their two machine guns and two 20-mm. cannon they outgunned every airplane which opposed them. Their 300-mile per hour speed enabled them to pursue—and to catch—all enemy aircraft within their range. Combining the advantages of speed, rapid climb, excellent maneuverability and heavy firepower, our pilots had in their new Zero fighter an airplane which shattered enemy opposition.
Besides the two skilled squadron commanders, Lieutenants Tamotsu Yokoyama and Saburo Shindo, and other wellknown fighter pilots including Lieutenant (JG) Ayao Shirane, Flight Warrant Officers Koshiro Yamashita and Ichiro Higashiyama flew with the new planes.
On August 19, 1940 Lieutenant Yokoyama led a squadron of twelve Zero fighters on an escort mission of fifty Nell bombers over Chungking, but failed to encounter any Chinese fighters. The following day Lieutenant Shindo made another sweep over Chungking escorting fifty bombers, but again failed to find an opportunity to engage in combat. Our intelligence officers believed that the Chinese had already learned of the arrival of the Zeros in China and, accordingly, had carefully dispersed their planes. Despite the lack of action which our pilots coveted, the initial two combat flights proved valuable in that they enabled our pilots to become familiar with the combat area. The missions also established new world records for the combat flights of fighter planes; the Zeros flew a round trip of more than one thousand nautical miles.
By early September the Navy concluded its major offensive and expeditionary operations and recalled from the continent all units except the 12th Air Corps with Zero fighters, and the 13th Air Corps with several squadrons of Nell bombers station in the Hankow area.
On September 12 Lieutenant Yokoyama led twelve Zeros on an escort mission for twenty-seven Nells in an attack against Chungking. Unopposed in the air, the Zero pilots sighted five enemy planes on the ground at Shihmachow Air Field, and dove earthward in a strafing attack. The enemy planes were decoys, and the Zeros then strafed airfield structures and other military establishments. Despite the lack of active aerial opposition against the Zeros, photographs taken the same day by a Type 98 reconnaissance plane confirmed the presence of thirty-two Chinese planes on the bases about the city.
On September 13 thirteen Zeros under the command of Lieutenant Shindo and Lieutenant (JG) Shirane escorted Nell bombers from Hankow on the thirty-fifth raid of the 13th Air Corps against Chungking. After the bombing runs the pilots put into effect a long-planned ruse to lure the Chinese fighters out of hiding. The Nells turned and started for Hankow, accompanied by the fighter planes. Approximately at two o’clock in the afternoon, with our bombing force already out of sight of the city, our reconnaissance plane radioed Lieutenant Shindo that Chinese fighters had appeared over Chungking.
The Zeros wheeled, climbing for altitude as they returned to the city and the unsuspecting Chinese fighters. Diving out of the sun, the Zeros swarmed over the startled Chinese pilots, spreading havoc with their machine guns and cannon. Within thirty minutes our pilots cleared the sky of all the Chinese fighters, later identified as twenty-seven Russian-made N-15 and N-16 airplanes.
Japan gained a new hero in Flight Warrant Officer Koshiro Yamashita, who in this single combat became an ace by destroying five enemy fighters. Flight Petty Officer (2nd Class) Oki, despite damage to his fuel tanks, pursued and destroyed an N-15 fighter. Two desperately evading enemy planes smashed into and exploded against a mountainside. Utterly confused by the flashing, swirling Zeros, three Chinese pilots hastily bailed out of their undamaged fighters. With the last enemy plane cleared from the sky, Warrant Officer Yamashita and Petty Officers Kitahata and Yoneda flew to Paishihyi Air Field, strafing and burning several Chinese planes which were just returning from other missions. Our pilots were overjoyed. Only four Zeros suffered light damage, and every one of our pilots escaped injury.
Vice-Admiral Shigetaro Shimada, the Commander in Chief of the China Area Fleet, immediately dispatched a special commendation to the Zero Fighter Squadron, which stated:
SPECIAL COMMENDATION
TO: THE 12TH AIR CORPS FIGHTER SQUADRON COMMANDED BY LIEUTENANT SABURO SHINDO:
ON 13 SEPTEMBER 1940 THIS SQUADRON MADE A SUCCESSFUL LONG-RANGE FLIGHT OVER THE MOUNTAINOUS SSUCHUAN-SHENG (SZECHWAN PROVINCE) AREA, ESCORTING THE CHUNGKING BOMBING EXPEDITION OF THE LAND-BASED ATTACK BOMBER GROUP. AFTER COMPLETING THEIR ESCORT MISSION AND APPEARING TO LEAVE THE TARGET AREA FOR THE PURPOSE OF LURING ENEMY FIGHTERS FROM HIDING, THE SQUADRON RE
TURNED TO CHUNGKING TO ATTACK A NUMERICALLY SUPERIOR ENEMY FIGHTER FORCE, SUCCEEDING IN DESTROYING ALL ENEMY FIGHTER PLANES THROUGH GALLANT AND COURAGEOUS COMBAT. THIS OUTSTANDING SUCCESS DESERVES THE DISTINGUISHED MILITARY MERIT.
I HEREBY AWARD THIS DIPLOMA OF MERIT.
OCTOBER 30, 1940.
SHIGETARO SHIMADA
COMMANDER IN CHIEF
CHINA AREA FLEET
Obviously the inability of the Chinese pilots to present a determined front to the attacking Zero fighters, accentuated by two crashing enemy planes and the three pilots who needlessly bailed out, contributed heavily to the one-sided victory of September 13. Much of the credit, however, rested directly with the Zero fighter which, by virtue of its superior flight range, staying power, high speed, heavy firepower, and unexcelled maneuverability, imparted to our pilots a tremendous advantage in dogfighting. This was enhanced, of course, by the superior flying ability of our pilots.
Informed of the brilliant first combat success of the Zero fighters, Vice-Admiral Teijiro Toyota, Chief of the Naval Bureau of Aeronautics, forwarded a letter of appreciation (reproduced below) to each of the three companies—Mitsubishi, Nakajima, and Dai Nihon Heiki (the Japan Weapons Company)—which had manufactured the airframes, engines, and 20-mm. cannon. The Navy expressed its great satisfaction with its new fighter by granting the Nakajima company a large production order for Zero fighter airframes.
LETTER OF APPRECIATION
TO: MR. KOSHIRO SHIBA, CHAIRMAN
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
MITSUBISHI HEAVY INDUSTRY COMPANY, LTD.
THE RECENT OUTSTANDING SUCCESS OF THE 12TH AIR CORPS ZERO FIGHTER SQUADRON IN ATTACKING AND DESTROYING TWENTY-SEVEN CHINESE FIGHTERS OVER CHUNGKING ON SEPTEMBER 13, 1940, WITHOUT LOSS TO OUR AIRPLANES, IS DUE IN GREAT PART TO THE EXCELLENT PERFORMANCE OF THE ZERO FIGHTER AIRPLANE.
I HEREBY EXPRESS MY SINCERE GRATITUDE, AND THE GRATITUDE OF THE NAVY, FOR THE OUTSTANDING AND MERITORIOUS WORK OF YOUR COMPANY IN COMPLETING WITHIN A SHORT DEVELOPMENT TIME THIS EXCELLENT FIGHTER.
SEPTEMBER 14, 1940
TEIJIRO TOYOTA
VICE-ADMIRAL
CHIEF, NAVY BUREAU
OF AERONAUTICS
Encouraged by the success of the Zero fighters against the enemy planes over Chungking, later in the afternoon of September 13, the 12th Air Corps launched the first attack against the city with Val bombers, flying from Ichang Air Base. Two days later, Kate bombers also flew from Ichang to attack Chungking. With its newly won command of the air over the Chinese objectives the Zeros made it possible for the Navy to apply all of its available bomber force against the enemy. On September 16 six Zero fighters attacked and destroyed a single large Chinese plane over Chungking; this was their last combat engagement for the month. Our pilots and mechanics devoted the final two weeks of the month solely to maintenance, preparing for the forthcoming flights deep within enemy territory to where the Chinese planes had fled.
On October 4 Lieutenants Yokoyama and Shirane led eight Zeros on an escort mission for twenty-seven Nells of the 13th Air Corps in their first raid against Chengtu in Szechwan Province. The two formations broke through thick clouds over the city at 2:30 P.M.,and the bombers inflicted heavy damage on their targets. Unopposed in the air, the Zeros attacked nearby Taipingssu Air Field, shooting down five N-16 fighter planes and one SB bomber. Our pilots then strafed airplanes and airfield installations.
With ground facilities burning and Chinese personnel scattered from the field, Flight Warrant Officer Higashiyama and Flight Petty Officers Hagiri, Nakase, and Oishi landed on the field while the remaining Zeros flew top cover. Leaving their planes with engines running, the four pilots attempted to set afire the remaining undamaged Chinese airplanes. The fierce gunfire of returning Chinese troops forced them to abandon their plan and to take off immediately.
The Zeros again had struck had, shooting down five fighters and one bomber, burning nineteen additional planes on the ground, and damaging four others, for a total confirmed kill of twenty-five enemy planes destroyed. Only two Zeros received light damage. Again Admiral Shimada forwarded a special commendation to the Corps.
The following day, October 5, Lieutenant Fusata Iida led seven Zeros in strafing attacks against Fenghuangshan Air Field near Chengtu. Our pilots set afire six large and four small planes and damaged two additional large aircraft. Fourteen decoys were burned.
As a consequence of these attacks, the backbone of Chinese air strength in the Chungking and Chengtu areas was broken. For weeks afterward the skies over these two cities were conspicuously free of enemy planes.
Immediately prior to the initial combat successes scored by the Zero fighters, elements of our Army and Navy were enabled to advance into French Indochina as a result of diplomatic negotiations with the French Vichy Government. (Although our entry into French Indochina resulted from diplomatic-political negotiations with France, this action eventually created strong friction between Japan and the United States, Great Britain, and other nations in the Allied fold. It could accurately be described as the first noticeable move in a series of events which finally resulted in the Pacific War.)
Our naval air units stationed in southern China few immediately to their new bases in northern French Indochina. The proximity of these new stations to Chinese targets enabled us to launch single-engine bombers to attack Kunming, an area of great strategic importance in southwestern China which, previously, could be reached only by the long-range Nells. As soon as the French air bases could receive them, squadrons of the 14th Air Corps’ Claude fighters, Kate attack bombers, and Val dive bombers were transferred to their new facilities. The 12th Air Corps in Hankow detached one squadron of Zero fighters, transferring them to French Indochina for long-range escort work.
On October 7 seven Zero and nine Claude fighters escorted a group of Val dive bombers to Kunming. Nearly twenty enemy fighter planes opposed the Zeros and Claudes, which definitely destroyed thirteen enemy planes and probably destroyed another. The Vals wrecked four enemy planes on the ground.
On December 12 seven Zero fighters escorted ten dive bombers and two bomb-carrying reconnaissance planes in an attack against Siangyun. Our fighters strafed and destroyed twenty-two enemy planes on the ground. From October 8 to the end of December Zeros flew an additional twenty-two sorties, in which they definitely shot down two enemy planes.
While the Indochina-based planes attacked southern Chinese targets, on October 10, the Double Ten Festival Day of China, the 12th Air Corps Zeros in the Hankow area raided Chungking without encountering enemy opposition. On October 26 eight Zeros caught a large group of Chinese planes over Chengtu, destroying five enemy fighters, one transport plane, and four other types. On December 30 eight Zeros returned to Chengtu for their fourth attack, sweeping in a strafing attack over the Fenghuangshan, Taipingssu, Shuanglin, and Wenchiang airfields. They burned eighteen enemy planes, and wrecked fifteen others by cannon fire. The Zeros also set afire one large fuel storehouse and shot up other ground installations. Only two of our fighters suffered damage from antiaircraft fire.
Thus ended the year 1940 and the Zero fighter’s baptism in combat. It drew first blood in an almost miraculous fashion, for in the period from August 19 to the end of the year the Zeros ran up this record:
Number of attacks made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Total number of planes used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Chinese planes shot down (one probable) . . . .59
Chinese planes destroyed (air and ground) . . .101
Number of Zeros damaged by enemy fire . . . .13
Number of Zeros lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0
However brilliant these combat successes, and however outstanding the record of our Navy Air Force in China, from the first transoceanic bombing of 1937 to the close of 1940, our pride can be justified only from the military standpoint.
No Japanese citizen can recall the events of these years
and find justification for the national conduct of our country. No one can deny the record, for history will relate only that Japan forced her friendly neighboring nations into an unreasonable and unnecessary war, transformed their fields and cities into battlegrounds, and visited misery and deprivation on millions of innocent people.
CHAPTER 4
Eve of the Pacific War
AS JAPANESE, WE FIND it difficult and more than a little embarrassing to discuss in retrospect our military successes in China immediately prior to the Pacific War. We would prefer to relegate our nation’s inexcusable conduct in the Sino-Japanese Incident to oblivion; however, in order to present accurately certain phases of that incident not previously included in this book I (Okumiya) must review a certain aspect of these events.
In late October of 1940 the Navy recalled from China all its Type 96 land-based attack bombers (Nells) for reorganization into new combat units. During the six months from October to April of 1941, the Zero fighter planes remaining on the continent were the only aerial forces capable of attacking on all fronts the Chinese units which had retreated beyond the effective range of our single-engine bombers and our Claude fighters. The task assigned to the remaining groups was enormous, for they were equipped with only thirty-odd fighter planes. Nevertheless, the Zeros maintained their one-sided superiority over enemy aircraft and, on March 14, 1941, scored another tremendous victory when our fighters slashed into large Chinese formations over Chengtu. Our pilots destroyed twenty-four planes and probably destroyed three others.
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