by Hugh Thomas
27. J. Gabriel de Lurbe, Chronique bordelaise (Bordeaux, 1619), 42, qu. Gabriel Hanotaux and Alfred Martineau, Histoire des colonies françaises . . . , 6 vols. (Paris, 1920-34), iv, 7.
28. Jean Bodin, The Six Books of a Commonweal, facs. ed. of Eng. tr. of 1606, ed. Kenneth McRae (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), 42.
29. Qu. in UNESCO, The Atlantic Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century (Paris, 1979), 165.
BOOK II: THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE TRADE
9. A GOOD CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE BLACKS
1. Jean-Michel Deveau, La Traite Rochelaise (Paris, 1990).
2. A. W. Lawrence [5, 3], 35 and 280fn.
3. The Hawkins Voyages, ed. Clements Markham, Hakluyt Society, vol. LVII (London, 1878), 5. See also Antonio Rumeu de Armas’ Viajes de Hawkins a América (Seville, 1947). See too J. A. Williamson, Sir John Hawkins (Oxford, 1927).
4. Jean Barbot, A Description of the Coasts of Guinea, 2 vols., ed. P. E. H. Hair (London, 1992), 194.
5. De Werken van G. A. Bredero, II (Amsterdam, 1890), qu. Jan Postma’s The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge, 1990). I failed to find an English translation of The Little Moor.
6. Enriqueta Vila Vilar [7, 1], 214.
7. Loc. cit.
8. Johann Gregor Aldenburg, Reise nach Brasilien, 1623-1626 (The Hague, 1930).
9. J. F. Jameson, ed., Narratives of New Netherland (New York, 1909), 129; also Broadhead and E. B. O’Callaghan, Colonial History of the State of New York (New York: 1858), vol. 2, 759-76.
10. C. L. R. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil (London, 1957), 83; Manuel Calado, O balersoso Lucideno e triumphe da libertade (Lisbon, 1648), 30, qu. C. L. R. Boxer Golden Age of Brazil (London, 1962), 16.
11. Phyllis Martin, External trade of the Loango coast (Oxford, 1972), 58; Ralph Delgado, Historia do Angola, 4 vols. (Benguela and Lobito, 1948 onwards), II, 281, n. 62, qu. J. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna (Madison, 1966), 142.
12. D, I, 97.
13. D, IV, 2.
14. Richard Jobson [Introduction].
15. D, IV, 49.
16. Qu. K. G. Davies, The Royal Africa Company (New York, 1970), 41.
17. J. T. Scharf, History of Maryland (Baltimore, 1878), I, 66.
18. John Winthrop’s journal, qu. D, III, 6.
19. Cambridge History of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1920), I, 69.
20. Cadereita, qu. Vila Vilar [7, 1].
21. Diary of Guijo, qu. Solange Alberro, Inquisition et société au Méxique (Mexico, 1988), 295.
22. William Atkins, A Relation of the Journey from St Omer to Seville (London, 1652), ed. Martin Murphy in Camden Fifth Series (London, 1994), 245.
10. THE BLACK SLAVE IS THE BASIS OF THE HACIENDA
1. AGI, Indif. gen. leg. 2796.
2. See Vila Vilar [9, 20] for further discussion.
3. H. Wätjen, Das Hollandische Kolonial Reich in Brasilien (Berlin, 1921), 487.
4. Alberto Vieira, Cartas, ed. J. Lúcio d’Azevedo, 3 vols. (Coimbra, 1925-28), I, 243.
5. C, 106-107, corrected by Vila Vilar.
6. E. B. O’Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York (New York, 1856), I, 162.
7. Qu. D, I, 125 fn 2.
8. Loc. cit.
9. Trends and Forces of World Sugar Consumption (Rome, 1961), 11.
10. Fr. Antoine Biet, Voyage de la France équinoxiale (Paris, 1664).
11. Jean Clodoré, Rélation de ce qui s’est passé dans les Isles et Terre Ferme de l’Amérique (Paris, 1671).
11. LAWFUL TO SET TO SEA
1. D, I, 125.
2. D, I, 128-31.
3. Samuel Pepys’ Diary, ed. Robert Latham and William Matthews (London, 1971), iv, 152.
4. D, I, 88.
5. Pepys [10, 3], v, 352-53.
6. Charles Davenant, Reflections on the Constitution and Management of the Trade to Africa (London, 1709). For James II, see John Miller, James II (London, 1990), 44.
7. Davies [10, 15], 179-80; Curtin, 7, 119, 122; David Galenson, ed., Markets in History (Cambridge, 1986); Richard Dunn, Sugar and Slaves (Williamsburg, 1972), 155.
8. Jacob Judd, “Frederick Philipse and the Madagascar Trade,” New York Historical Society Quarterly LV, 1971.
9. D, I, 271.
10. David Richardson, Bristol, Africa and the Eighteenth Century Slave Trade to America, 3 vols. (Bristol, 1986-1990).
11. For the lesser ports see Nigel Tattersfield, The Forgotten Trade (London, 1991), 208, 221, 281, 349.
12. Qu. E. D. Ellis, An Introduction to Sugar as a Commodity (Philadelphia, 1905), 82.
13. Calendar of state papers, Col. 17080-17090, cit. D, III 2.
14. N. B. Shurtless, Topographical and Historical Description of Boston (Boston, 1871), I, 48.
15. D, III, 1.
16. Governor Berkeley, qu. D, IV, 6.
17. D, IV, 1-2.
18. D, II, 241; Maurice Cranston, John Locke (London, 1985), 178.
19. D, I, 124.
20. D, IV, 243, 250-56.
21. The Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Oxford, 1988), iv, 521.
12. HE WHO KNOWS HOW TO SUPPLY THE SLAVES WILL SHARE THIS WEALTH
1. Cit. Roberto Arrazola, Palenque, primer pueblo libre de América (Cartagena, 1970), 68-70.
2. Memorial of Captain Fernando de Silva Solís 1642 in AGI, Indif. gen. leg. 2796 published by Enriqueta Vila Vilar in “La Revolución de Portugal y la Trata de Negros.”
3. I. A. Wright, “The Coymans Asiento,” Bijdragen voor Vaderlandische Geschiedenis en Oudeheidkunde, reeks vi, deel I, afleverung 1-2 (Arnhem, 1924).
4. Enriqueta Vila Vilar, “La Sublevación de Portugal y la trata de Negros,” Iberoamerikanisches Archiv, ns. 2, 3 (Berlin, 1976), 175; also Jonathan Israel, Empires and Entrepôts (London, 1990), 439.
5. Davies [9, 15], 329.
6. D, I, 329, 341.
7. AGI, Indif. gen. 153-7-10 (old categorization), qu. D, I, 50.
8. D, I, 280, 350, 370.
9. Barbot [9, 4], I, 273.
10. Scelle [6, 7], 125.
11. Mauricio Goulart, Escravido Africano no Brasil (São Paolo, 1950).
12. Boxer [9, 9], 47.
13. Goulart [12, 10], 203. See too C, 209.
14. Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (London, 1891), 38-39: “they desired to make but one voyage, to bring the negroes on shore privately and divide them among their own plantations and, in a word, the question was whether I would go their super-cargo in the ship to manage the trading on the coast of Guinea . . .”
15. Le Gentil de la Barbinais, Nouveau Voyage autour du monde (Paris, 1728-1729) qu. Freyre [8, 8], 445.
16. Adam Jones in Serge Daget, ed., Actes du colloque internationale sur la traite des noirs (Nantes, 1985), I, 285.
17. Qu. H. A. Wyndham, The Atlantic and Slavery (1935), 59.
18. E. W. Martin, The British West Africa Settlements (London, 1927), 48-49.
19. C, 119.
20. Jean Bazin and Emanuel Terry, “Guerres des lignanges et guerres d’état en Afrique,” Archives Contemporaines (Paris, 1992), 9-32.
21. Qu. Postma [9, 15], 85, 96.
22. Saint-Simon on Ducasse in Pléiade ed. (Paris, 1988), vol. V, 211, also II, 403.
23. The grant is in AGI, Santo Domingo leg. 2515.
24. Cal. state papers qu. D, I, 3 fn.
25. D, II, 4.
26. D, II, 82.
BOOK III: APOGEE
13. NO NATION HAS PLUNGED SO DEEPLY INTO THIS GUILT AS GREAT BRITAIN
1. Elizabeth Donnan, “Early Days of the South Sea Company,” Journal of Economic and Business History II (3), May 1930. See Victoria G. Sorsby, British Trade with Spanish America Under the Asiento, 1713-1740, Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1975.
2. Daniel Defoe, “An Essay on the South Sea Trade” (London, 1711).
3. As recalled by the Duke of Clarence in PH, 34 1094.
4. Colin Palmer, Human Cargoes (Urbana, 1981), 10.
6. D, II, 171-73
7. Qu. Lord Erleigh, The South Sea Bubble (London, 1935), 36. See Irwin Ehrenpreis, Swift: The Man, His Works, and the Age (London, 1983).
8. Far the best work on the Bubble is that of John Carswell (London, 1993), on which I have leaned heavily for these paragraphs.
9. Palmer [15, 4], 75-76, 85-86.
10. D, II, 195.
11. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Complete Letters, ed. R. Robert Halsband (Oxford, 1965), I, 232.
12. Qu. Leslie Stephen, essay on Chandos in DNB.
13. D, II, 256.
14. J. A. Rawley, “Humphrey Morice,” in Daget ed. [12, 15], I, 269.
15. David Richardson, Bristol, Africa and the Eighteenth Century Slave Trade to America, 3 vols., Bristol Record Society, nos. 38, 39, 42, 1986-90.
16. C, 140, 215-16.
17. Daniel Defoe, A Tour Through the Whole Inland of England, 3 vols., 1724-1727.
18. A General and Descriptive History of Liverpool, 1798, qu. Donnan, II, 49.
19. James Picton, Memorials of Liverpool, 2 vols. (London, 1873), I, 182, 185-86.
20. David Richardson, The Bristol Slave Traders, A Collective Portrait (Bristol, 1985).
21. Folarin Shyllon, Black People in England (London, 1977), 6-7.
22. Jean-Joseph Expilly, in his Dictionnaire Géographique (Paris, 1762), V, 17.
23. A. Perret, “René Montaudoin,” in Bulletin de la société d’Archeologie d’Histoire de Nantes, t. lxxxviii, 1949, 78-94.
24. Expilly [13, 21], V, 80.
25. George Collas, René-Auguste de Chateaubriand (Paris, 1949), 39.
26. L. Peytraud, L’Esclavage aux Antilles Françaises avant 1789 (Paris, 1897), 380.
27. C, 170; Gaston Martin, Nantes au xviiième siècle (Paris, 1931).
28. Goulart [12, 10] 203; Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Benin et Bahia de todos los santos (Paris, 1968), 100.
29. D, IV, 235 fn.
30. D, IV, 263, 273.
31. D, IV, 236.
32. Boston Gazette, May 22, 1721.
33. D, IV, 236.
34. Boston Gazette, 1721.
35. D, IV (Amory).
36. Hedges, The Browns of Provincetown Plantation (Providence, 1968).
37. James G. Lydon, “New York and the Slave Trade,” WMQ 35 (1978).
14. BY THE GRACE OF GOD
1. Malachy Postlethwaite, The African Trade, the Great Pillar (London, 1745), 4.
2. D, II, 474-84.
3. Philip Hamer et al., The Letters and Papers of Henry Laurens (Columbia, S.C., 1964), I, 202, 313.
4. D, III, 320, iv, 313, 321.
5. D, IV, 321.
6. Hamer, Laurens [14, 3], II, 123.
7. Ibid., II, 177.
8. Francisco de Arango, Obras completas (Havana, 1952), I, 117.
9. Hamer, Laurens [14, 3], III, 412.
10. D, II, 514-15.
11. Gaston Martin [13, 26].
12. Op. cit.
13. Collas [13, 24], 128.
14. E. Saugera, Bordeaux, port négrier (Bordeaux, 1995), 69.
15. Letter of Silva, October 18, 1781, cit. José Honorio Rodrigues, Brazil and Africa (Berkeley, 1964).
16. Kenneth Maxwell, Pombal (New York, 1996), 54.
17. Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, Voyage autour du monde (Paris, 1958).
18. AGI, Indif. Gen., leg. 2819.
19. Bibiano Torres Ramírez, La Compañía Gaditana de Negros (Seville, 1973), 35.
20. Loc. cit.
21. D, IV, 245.
22. D, IV, 471.
23. For Oswald see David Hancock, Citizens of the World (New York, 1995).
24. For Clement Noble, see Sir Andrew Noble, The Nobles of Ardmore (privately printed c. 1973).
25. Richard Brooke, Liverpool as It Was During the Last Quarter of the Eighteenth Century (Liverpool, 1853), 328.
26. House of Lords MSS Feb. 14-19, 1778.
27. Richard Miles in D, II, 522.
28. B. W. Higman, Jamaica Surveyed (Kingston, 1988).
29. George Howe, Mount Hope (New York, 1959), 87.
30. Robert Louis Stein, The French Slave Trade (Madison, 1979), 180.
31. Jean-Philippe de Garran-Coulon, Rapport sur les troubles de Saint-Domingue (Paris, Year V-VII), iv, 18.
32. J. F. Landolphe, Mémoires du capitaine Landolphe, 2 vols. (Paris, 1823).
BOOK IV: THE CROSSING
15. A FILTHY VOYAGE
1. W. E. Minchinton, “The Virginia Letters of Isaac Hobhouse,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 66 (1958), 279.
2. D, III, 195.
3. Hancock [14, 23], 1995, 432-445; I. A. Wright [12, 3], 50.
4. For Isaac Norris, see Darold Wax, “Quaker Merchants and the Slave Trade,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography LXXXVII (1962) and the same author’s “Negro Imports into Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania History XXXII (1965).
5. For the Galtons, see B. M. D. Smith, The Galtons of Birmingham, Business History, 138.
6. Qu. C. L. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne (London, 1963), 271.
7. Minchinton [15, 1], 278.
8. Jean Mettas, Répertoire des expéditions négriers françaises au XVIIIe siècle, vol. 1, Nantes (1978); vol. 2, Ports autres que Nantes (1984).
9. Cit. Palmer [15, 4], 21.
10. Pierre Boule, “L’origine du racisme en Europe,” in Daget [12, 16], I, 535.
11. Darold Wax, “A Philadelphia Surgeon on the Coast of Africa,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography XC (i) (1968).
12. Maurice Bégouen-Démeaux, Une famille de marchands de la Havre, 2 vols. (Le Havre, 1951-71), I, 20.
13. Hamer [14, 3], VI.
14. D, II, 82.
15. Collas [13, 24], 177.
16. Crow [8, 20], 176-77.
17. D, IV, 496.
18. Thomas Phillips, A Journal of a Voyage Made in the Hannibal, 1694 (London, 1746), 233.
19. John Newton, “Thoughts on the African Slave Trade,” Letters and Sermons, 3 vols. (Edinburgh, 1780), 103.
20. J.-M. Deveaux, France au temps des négriers (Paris, 1994).
21. Barbot [2, 11], xcviii.
22. R & P, 1790, vol. 82, 27.
23. R & P, 1790, vol. 73, 163.
24. R & P, 1790, vol. 82, 29.
25. Edouard Corbière, Le Négrier (Paris, 1832).
26. D, III, 229.
27. D, II, 327.
16. GREAT PLEASURE FROM OUR WINE
1. D, III, 269-70.
2. D, II, 274.
3. For Malemba see Rinchon [8, 2], 32.
4. For Loango Bay see ibid., 71, 74.
5. Barbot [9, 4], II, 493.
6. Captain William Snelgrave, A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea (London, 1734), 88.
7. Bosman [4, 16], 174.
8. Lord Edward Fitzmaurice, Life of William, Earl of Shelburne, 3 vols. (London, 1875), I, 400, 404.
9. Fernandes [3, 16], 17.
10. Francis Moore, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa (London, 1738), 87.
11. Barbot [9, 4], 172.
12. As put by Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (London, 1942), 81.
13. Qu. Verger [13, 27], 30.
14. D, II, 541.
17. SLAVE HARBORS I
1. Fernandes [3, 16], 7.
2. N. Bennet and G. Brooks, New England Merchants in Africa (Boston, 1965), 15.
3. R & P, 1790, vol. 72, 39.
4. Sir George Collier’s Report, in PP 1821, vol. xxiii.
5. Qu. John Thornton, Africa and the Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World (New York, 1992), 66.
6. Olfert Dapper, Nouvelle description des pays africains (Amsterdam, 1670), 471.
7. C. L. R. Boxer, Race Relations in the Portuguese Empire (Oxford, 1963), 11.
8. Barbot [9, 4].
9. Barbot [9, 4], II, 404.
10. D, II, 520.
11. Davies [9, 15], 178-79.
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12. See Saugera [14, 14].
13. Albert van Dantzig, Les Hollandais sur la côte de Guinée (Paris, 1980).
18. SLAVE HARBORS II
1. I. A. Akinjogbin, Dahomey and Its Neighbours (Cambridge, 1966), 134.
2. Pieter Marees, Beschrynge end historische vergael, vant gout koninckrijck van Guinea, tr. and ed. by Albert van Dantzig and Adam Jones (Oxford, 1987), 224.
3. Antoine-François Prévost, Histoire Générale des Voyages (Paris, 1746 onwards). For an interesting study of Prévost see Shirley Jones, “Les esclaves sont des hommes,” in R. J. Howells, Voltaire & His World, Studies Presented to W. H. Barber (Oxford, 1985).
4. D, I, 399.
5. Pruneau de Pommegorge, Description de la Nigritie (Amsterdam, 1789).
6. Qu. Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa (Oxford, 1991), 262-63.
7. Lambe’s letter in William Smith, A New Voyage to Guinea (London, 1744), 169-81.
8. Qu. Akinjogbin [18, 1], 164.
9. Macgregor Laird, qu. in Howard Temperley, White Dreams, Black Africa (New Haven, 1991).
10. D. Forde, ed., Efik Traders of Old Calabar (London, 1956), 81.
11. John Adams, Remarks on the Country Extending . . . (London, 1823), 129.
12. R & P, House of Commons Report of 1789, evidence of James and Penny.
13. Abridgement of the minutes of evidence taken before the whole House [of Commons], III, 1790, 53-54.
14. Cit. Vansina [9, 10], 181.
15. Louis-Marie-Joseph Count Degrandpré, Voyage a la côte occidentale d’Afrique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1801), I, 223.
16. William Beckford in the House of Commons, 1752, cit. John Latimer, Annals of Bristol (Bristol, 1893), 128.
19. A GREAT STRAIT FOR SLAVES
1. D, II, 255.
2. Barbot [9, 4], I, 106.
3. Bosman [4, 16], 363.
4. Francis Moore [16, 10], 41.
5. R & P, 1790, 73, 207.
6. R & P, 1790, 73, 213.
7. Palmer [13, 4], 20.
8. D, II, 527.
9. Qu. D, II, 570.
10. C. B. Wadstrom, Observations on the Slave Trade (London, 1789), 1.
11. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade (London, 1788), 16.
12. Vansina [9, 10], 248.
13. Qu. Postma [9, 15], 90.
14. John Atkins, A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil and the West-Indies (London, 1735), 71-72.
