The Eichmann Trial
Page 20
13. Ibid., p. 67; Hans Safrian, Eichmann’s Men (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 36.
14. TAE, p. 285.
15. Lang, p. 57;TAE, pp. 234–35.
16. TAE, pp. 266–68.
17. Ibid., pp. 227–28.
18. Karl A. Schleunes, ed., Legislating the Holocaust: The Bernard Loesner Memoirs and Supporting Documents (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2001), pp. 74–75; Hans Safrian, Eichmann’s Men (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and Washington, D.C.: USHMM, 2010), pp. 27–38.
19. TAE, pp. 299–300; Yaacov Lozowick, Hitler’s Bureaucrats (London: Continuum, 2000), p. 63.
20. Hanna Yablonka, The State of Israel vs. Adolf Eichmann (New York: Schocken, 2004), p. 89.
21. TAE, pp. 323–26, 517.
22. Ibid., pp. 578–79, 584.
23. Ibid., pp. 333–34.
24. Ibid., p. 349.
25. EIJ, p. 11; Gideon Hausner, Justice in Jerusalem (New York: Holocaust Library, 1968), pp. 176–77; Gideon Hausner, “Eichmann and His Trial,” Saturday Evening Post, Nov. 10, 1962, p. 59; Yechiam Weitz, “In the Name of Six Million Accusers: Gideon Hausner as Attorney-general and His Place in the Eichmann Trial,” Israel Studies, Summer 2009, pp. 33, 38.
26. TAE, pp.398, 400–01, 412.
27. Ibid., pp. 460–61.
28. Ibid., p. 466.
29. Ibid., pp. 1124–25.
30. Ibid., pp. 640–41; Gouri, Facing the Glass Booth, pp. 55–56.
31. TAE, pp. 366, 396, 722, 724–29.
32. Ibid., pp. 736, 737, 742, 746–47.
33. Ibid., pp. 748–49, 751; Martha Gellhorn, “Eichmann and the Private Conscience,” Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1962.
34. TAE, p. 1784.
35. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1961), p. 529; Randolph L. Braham, The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), pp. 465–68, 587–89; Jeno Levai, Eichmann in Hungary (Budapest: Pannonia Press, 1961), pp. 69–71.
36. TAE, p. 966.
37. Ibid., pp. 1020, 1072; see also Yehuda Bauer, Jews for Sale (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), p. 168.
38. TAE, pp. 1048–50, 1059–60, 1071.
39. Ibid., pp. 964–65, 968.
40. Ibid., pp. 957, 975–86; Braham, The Politics of Genocide, pp. 891–93; Levai, Eichmann in Hungary, pp. 127–28; Stephan Landsman, Crimes of the Holocaust (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), pp. 107–09.
41. TAE, p. 1088; Cesarani, p. 185.
42. TAE, pp. 1096–97.
43. Ibid., pp. 1111–13; Braham, The Politics of Genocide, pp. 957, 967.
44. TAE, p. 1114; Levai, Eichmann in Hungary, p. 101; Lozowick, Hitler’s Bureaucrats, p. 265.
45. TAE, pp. 1354, 1451; see also Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers, Nazi Palestine: The Plans for the Extermination of the Jews in Palestine (New York: Enigma Books, 2010); and Jeffrey Herf, Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009).
46. TAE, pp. 1365–67.
Chapter 5
1. TAE, pp. 1420, 1424, 1428, 1478, 1492.
2. Ibid., pp. 1375–77, 1399, 1402, 1416–17, 1431.
3. Ibid., p. 1423.
4. Ibid., pp. 1375, 1431–32; Lang, p. ix.
5. Ibid., pp. 1538, 1525–26, 1541–42, 1567.
6. Ibid., pp. 1538–40.
7. Ibid., pp. 1568; Time, June 30, 1961; The Observer, June 28, 1961; Haim Gouri, Facing the Glass Booth (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2004), pp. 167, 191.
8. Ibid., pp. 1381, 1398, 1415–16, 1474–75, 1468.
9. New York Times, June 21, 25, 26, 1961; July 9, 1961.
10. Martha Gellhorn, “Eichmann and the Private Conscience,” Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1962, p. 58; Joseph Kessel, in France-Soir, July 7, 1961, in Gideon Hausner, Justice in Jerusalem (New York: Holocaust Library, 1968), p. 367.
11. Moshe Pearlman, The Capture and Trial of Adolf Eichmann (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1963), p. 466; TAE, pp. 1575, 1576; Leon Poliakov, “The Eichmann Trial: The Proceedings,” American Jewish Yearbook, 1963, p. 79.
12. Lang, p. 60; TAE, pp. 1602–05.
13. TAE, p. 1606; Washington Post, July 12, 1961; Heinz Hohne, The Order of the Death’s Head (London: Martin Kecker & Warburg Unlimited, 1970), pp. 328–30.
14. TAE, pp. 1610–11.
15. TAE, pp. 1610, 1620–21.
16. TAE, pp. 1625–26.
17. Gouri, Facing the Glass Booth, p. 108.
18. TAE, pp. 1626–27, 1680.
19. Ibid., pp. 1680–81; see also Gunnar S. Paulsson, “ ‘Bridge over the Oresund’: The Historiography on the Expulsion of the Jews from Nazi-Occupied Denmark,” Journal of Contemporary History, July 1995, pp. 431–64.
20. TAE, pp. 1785–87.
21. Pearlman, Capture and Trial of Eichmann, p. 466; Poliakov, “Eichmann Trial,” p. 79; Harry Mulisch, Criminal Case 40/61: The Trial of Adolf Eichmann (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), pp. 52, 141; Gouri, Facing the Glass Booth, p. 198.
22. Hausner, Justice in Jerusalem, pp. 312, 368.
23. New York Times, July 16, 1961; Gouri, Facing the Glass Booth, p. 213.
24. Israeli Criminal Procedure Law (Integrated Version), 1982, sects. 175, 176.
25. Omer Bartov, The Jew in the Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), p. 81; Gouri, Facing the Glass Booth, p. 226; TAE, pp. 1803–04; Hanna Yablonka, The State of Israel vs. Adolf Eichmann (New York: Schocken, 2004), pp. 138–39; David Cesarani, Becoming Eichmann: Rethinking the Life, Crimes, and Trial of a “Desk Murderer” (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2004), p. 300.
26. TAE, pp. 1803–04, 1810–11; Bartov, Jew in the Cinema, p. 81.
27. TAE, pp.1814–18, 1820.
28. Pearlman, Capture and Trial of Eichmann, p. 546.
29. TAE, pp. 1826–27, 1829.
30. Ibid., p. 1832.
31. Mulisch, Criminal Case 40/61, p. 142.
32. TAE, pp. 2047–51, 2061, 2063.
33. Ibid., pp. 2082–84, 2088, 2100–01, 2104.
34. Ibid., pp. 2117, 2122–23, 2137, 2143–44.
35. Ibid., pp. 2130, 2182.
36. Ibid., pp. 2160, 2169, 2178.
37. Ibid., p. 2184.
38. Ibid., pp. 2204, 2216–17.
39. Ibid., p. 2218. In 1988 John Demjanjuk was also sentenced to death under the same law that was used in the Eichmann case. However, his sentence was overturned by the Israeli High Court on appeal in 1993.
40. Tom Segev, The Seventh Million (New York: Henry Holt, 1991), pp. 364–65; Yechiam Weitz, “The Founding Father and the War Criminal’s Trial: Ben-Gurion and the Eichmann Trial,” Yad Vashem Studies, vol. 36, no. 1 (2008), pp. 236–37.
41. Avner Avrahami, “ ‘Maybe’ Was Not an Option,” Haaretz, May 6, 2010.
Chapter 6
1. Jewish Chronicle (London), Nov. 1, 1963, p. 1; Konrad Kellen, “Reflections on ‘Eichmann in Jerusalem,’ ” Midstream, vol. 9, no. 3 (Sept. 1963), p. 25; John Gross, “Arendt on Eichmann,” Encounter, vol. 21, no. 5 (Nov. 1963), pp. 66, 68.
2. Hugh Trevor-Roper, “How Innocent Was Eichmann?” Sunday Times (London), Oct.13, 1963.
3. Louis Harap, “Notes and Communications: On Arendt’s Eichmann and Jewish Identity,” Studies on the Left, vol. 5, no. 4 (Fall 1965), pp. 52–79, in Michael Ezra, “The Eichmann Polemics: Hannah Arendt and Her Critics,” http://dissentmagazine.org/democratiya/article_pdfs/d9Ezra.pdf.
4. Stephen Spender, “Death in Jerusalem,” New York Review of Books, vol. 1, no. 2 (June 1, 1963).
5. “Arguments: More on Eichmann,” Partisan Review, vol. 31, no. 2 (Spring 1964) pp. 253–83, comments by Marie Syrkin, Harold Weisberg, Irving Howe, Robert Lowell, Dwight Macdonald, Lionel Abel, Mary McCarthy, and William Phillips; Mary McCarthy, “The Hue and Cry,” Partisan Review, vol. 31, no.1 (Winter 1964), p. 82.
6. Bernard Wasserstein, “Blame the Victim—Hannah Arendt Among the Nazis: The Historian and
Her Sources,” Times Literary Supplement, Oct. 30, 2009.
7. Hannah Arendt, “The Jewish Army—The Beginning of Jewish Politics?” Aufbau, Nov. 14, 1941, reprinted in Hannah Arendt, The Jewish Writings (New York: Schocken, 2007), p. 137
8. Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 328–29; Hannah Arendt, “Answers to Questions Submitted by Samuel Grafton,” Hannah Arendt, The Jewish Writings, eds. Jerome Kohn and Ron F. Feldman (New York: Schocken Books, 2007), p. 475. Samuel Grafton, a prominent American journalist, was assigned to interview Arendt by Look magazine. For a fascinating backstory on why the interview never took place, see Anthony Grafton, “Arendt and Eichmann at the Dinner Table,” American Scholar, vol. 68, no. 1 (Winter 1999), pp. 105–19.
9. Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, revised and enlarged ed. (New York: Penguin, 1994), pp. 5, 121 [hereafter EIJ].
10. Hannah Arendt to Heinrich Blücher, April 15, 1961, in Walter Laqueur, “The Arendt Cult,” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 33, no. 4 (1998), p. 493; Hannah Arendt to Karl Jaspers, April 13, 1961, in Hannah Arendt and Karl Jaspers, Correspondence, 1926–1969, eds. Lotte Kohler and Hans Saner (New York: Harcourt, 1992), p. 434; Hannah Arendt to Blücher, April 20, 1961, in Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, p. 331.
11. Tony Judt, “At Home in This Century,” New York Review of Books, vol. 42, no. 6 (April 6, 1995).
12. Alfred Kazin, Alfred Kazin’s America: Critical and Personal Writings, ed. Ted Solataroff (New York: Harper Collins, 2003), pp. 473–75; Wasserstein, “Blame the Victim,”; Bernard Wasserstein, “Symposium: Is Hannah Arendt Still Relevant?” Front Page Magazine, Feb. 26, 2010, http://frontpagemag.com/2010/02/26/symposium-is-hannah-arendt-still-relevant/.
13. Arendt to Jaspers, April 13, 1961, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, p. 434.
14. “Eichmann in Jerusalem: An Exchange of Letters Between Gershom Scholem and Hannah Arendt,” Encounter, vol. 22, no. 1 (Jan. 1964), p. 51.
15. EIJ, p. 3; Elie Wiesel, who covered the trial for The Jewish Forward, recalled Arendt’s frustration with her inability to understand the Hebrew (conversation with Wiesel, London, Sept. 12, 2008).
16. Arendt to Jaspers, April 13, 1961, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, p. 434; Michael Marrus, “Eichmann in Jerusalem: Justice and History,” in Arendt in Jerusalem, ed. Aschheim, p. 208; EIJ, p. 3.
17. EIJ, p. 7; Anita Shapira, “The Eichmann Trial: Changing Perspectives,” in After Eichmann, ed. David Cesarani (New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 37, n. 9.
18. EIJ, pp. 60, 63.
19. Ibid., pp. 116, 125–26.
20. Isaiah Trunk, Lodzsher Ghetto [Łódź Ghetto] (New York: YIVO, 1962), pp. 311–12.
21. EIJ, p. 119, Shapira, “Eichmann Trial,” p. 24; Leora Bilsky, “Between Justice and Politics,” in Arendt in Jerusalem, ed. Aschheim, p. 234.
22. EIJ, p. 123; Primo Levi, The Drowned and the Saved (London: Abacus Book, 1986), p. 42.
23. TAE, p. 1237; EIJ, pp. 223–24.
24. Ibid., p. 119. For the original mention of Baeck see The New Yorker, March 2, 1963, p. 42. For the edition in which the “Jewish Führer” phrase was retained, see the 1963 Viking Press edition, p. 105. For Hilberg’s original comment regarding Baeck, which Arendt adopted, adapted, and expanded, see Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1961), p. 292; Segev, The Seventh Million, p. 6; Kazin, Kazin’s America, p. 467.
25. EIJ, pp. 11, 61, 254, 274.
26. Ibid., p. 54; Arendt to Jaspers, Dec. 2, 1960, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, pp. 409–10.
27. EIJ, p. 27; Arendt to Jaspers, Dec. 23, 1960, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, pp. 414–15.
28. EIJ, pp. 259–60, 271.
29. Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, p. 361.
30. EIJ, pp. 15–17, 18, 38, 200; Norman Podhoretz, “Hannah Arendt on Eichmann: A Study in the Perversity of Brilliance,” Commentary, Sept. 3, 1963, p. 6.
31. EIJ, p. 289.
32. Ibid., p. 91; Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), pp. 170–71.
33. EIJ, pp. 232–33. Arendt seemed not to be aware that Bulgaria’s participation in the Final Solution policy was compatible with that of Romania and Hungary (before the German occupation) in that the Bulgarians delivered the Jews residing in territories occupied as a result of World War II to German killing centers while refusing to give up Jews residing within the interwar territorial borders. In other words, they gave up the “foreign” Jews but not the “Bulgarians.”
34. Ibid., p. 121.
35. Ibid., pp. 278–79. She subsequently refined this position and explained to a German correspondent that she meant that “no one can be reasonably expected” to share the earth with Eichmann. (Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, p. 372); Amos Elon, “Introduction,” Eichmann in Jerusalem, reprint of 1964 ed. (New York: Penguin Classics, 2006), p. xx.
36. EIJ, p. 11.
37. Arendt to Jaspers, Dec. 23, 1960, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, p. 417.
38. Robert H. Glauber, “The Eichmann Case,” The Christian Century, May 22, 1963, p. 682.
39. Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, p. 338; Richard J. Bernstein, Hannah Arendt and the Jewish Question (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), p. 159.
40. Kazin, Kazin’s America, p. 179; Judt, “At Home,” p. 5.
41. Arendt to Jaspers, July 20, 1963, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, p. 511.
42. John McGowan, Hannah Arendt: An Introduction (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1998), p. 12.
43. Hans Mommsen, “Hannah Arendt’s Interpretation of the Holocaust as a Challenge to Human Existence,” in Arendt in Jerusalem, ed. Aschheim, p. 224.
44. Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, p. 345.
45. Hilberg found eighty places that he believed came close to constituting plagiarism. (Raul Hilberg, Politics of Memory [Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996], pp. 147–50; 152–57). For additional analysis of the material she used from Hilberg, see Nathaniel Popper, “A Conscious Pariah: On Raul Hilberg,” Nation, March 31, 2010.
46. Hilberg, Politics of Memory, p. 150.
47. Yaakov Lozowick, Hitler’s Bureaucrats (London: Continuum, 20008), p. 8; Walter Laqueur, “Re-Reading Hannah Arendt,” Encounter, vol. 52, no. 3 (March, 1979), pp. 76, 79; Christopher R. Browning, Collected Memories: Holocaust History and Postwar Testimony (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), pp. 3–4.
48. Michael R. Marrus, “Eichmann in Jerusalem,” in Aschheim, ed., Arendt in Jerusalem, p. 212.
49. Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, p. 378.
50. Hillel Tryster, “ ‘We Have Ways of Making You Believe …’: The Eichmann Trial as Seen in The Specialist,” Anti-Semitism International, 2004, pp. 34–42. In an interview Sivan claimed that it was his film which prompted Israel to release the Eichmann memoir in 2000. As one who personally requested the memoir from the Israeli attorney general for use in my trial, I can categorically state that this is at the very best a fanciful claim on Sivan’s part. The Independent, March 3, 2000, p. 12.
51. Marrus, “Eichmann in Jerusalem,” p. 206.
52. EIJ, p. 286.
53. Ibid., p. 49.
54. Arendt to Mary McCarthy, May 10, 1961, in Between Friends, ed. Carol Brightman (New York: Harcourt, 1995), p. 117.
55. Arendt to Jaspers, June 16, 1961, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, p. 441; Hilberg, The Politics of Memory, p. 148.
56. EIJ, pp. 229–30.
57. Conversation with Antony Polonsky, June 28, 2009.
58. Arendt to Jaspers, Aug. 6, 1961; Feb. 19, 1966; both in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, pp. 445, 628; Elźbieta Ettinger, Hannah Arendt / Martin Heidegger (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), p. 114.
59. Leora, Bilsky, Transformative Justice (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), pp. 94–95.
60. Alfred Kazin, New York Jew (New York: Knopf, 1978), p. 218.
61. Arendt to Ja
spers, Oct. 1, 1967, in Arendt and Jaspers, Correspondence, pp. 674–75; Arendt to McCarthy, Oct. 17, 1969; Oct. 16, 1973; both in Between Friends, ed. Brightman, pp. 249, 349–50.
62. Yosef Gorny, Between Auschwitz and Jerusalem (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2003), p. 45.
63. Notes for a lecture given at Wesleyan University, January 11, 1962, in Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, p. 339. Young Bruehl observes that she made this statement before Eichmann in Jerusalem was written.
Conclusion
1. Hausner, Justice in Jerusalem (New York: Holocaust Library, 1968), p. 452.
2. Though the trial did strengthen Germany’s commitment to finding and prosecuting war criminals, some of these investigations, such as the one Lothar Hermann read about in the newspaper, were already in the planning stages prior to the proceedings in Jerusalem. Jeffrey Herf, “Politics and Memory in West and East Germany Since 1961,” Journal of Israeli History, vol. 23, no. 1 (Spring 2004), pp. 40–64; Mary Fulbrook, German National Identity After the Holocaust (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 2002), pp. 70–71.
3. Tom Segev, The Seventh Million (New York: Henry Holt, 1991), p. 361.
4. Hasia Diner, We Remember with Reverence and Love (New York: NYU Press, 2009); David Cesarani, “Introduction,” in After Eichmann, ed. Cesarani (New York: Routledge, 2005), pp. 1–3; Anita Shapira, “The Holocaust: Private Memories, Public Memory,” Jewish Social Studies, vol. 4, no. 2 (1998), pp. 40–58.
5. Dalia Ofer, “The Strength of Remembrance,” Jewish Social Studies, vol. 6, no. 2 (2000), p. 37.
6. Divrei HaKnesset (Records of the Knesset), vol. 9, pp. 1655–57; vol. 26, pp. 1386–88; vol. 31, pp. 1264, 1306; vol. 80, pp. 564–66.
7. Boaz Cohen, “The Birth Pangs of Holocaust Research in Israel,” Yad Vashem Studies, vol. 33, pp. 203–43.
8. For a more complete discussion of the treatment of the Holocaust in American popular culture, see Jeffrey Shandler, While America Watches (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
9. Haim Gouri, Facing the Glass Booth (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2004), p. 324; Sidra DeKoven Ezrahi, By Words Alone (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 206ff. The recollections by Beisky, Gutman, and Wigoder are in The Trial of Adolf Eichmann [video recording] (Burbank: PBS Home Video, 1997), http://remember.org/eichmann/participants.htm.