Oppose Any Foe
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“… weed whacker”: Brian Dodwell and Marielle Ness, “A View from the CT Foxhole: An Interview with Captain Robert A. Newson,” CTC Sentinel 8, no. 2 (February 2015): 1–4.
did not have plans to attack American interests: David S. Cloud and Kathleen Hennessey, “Obama’s Pakistan Gamble Fails to Pay Off,” Los Angeles Times, May 22, 2012.
300 to more than 1,000: Gregory D. Johnsen, The Last Refuge: Yemen, Al-Qaeda, and America’s War in Arabia (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013), 264; Robert F. Worth, “Yemen, Hailed as Model, Struggles for Stability,” New York Times, February 18, 2013; “Yemeni Parliament in Non-Binding Vote Against Drone Attacks,” Reuters, December 15, 2013.
directed the surgical strikes: Greg Botelho and Hakim Almasmari, “State Department: U.S. Pulls Remaining Forces out of Yemen,” CNN, March 23, 2015; Brian Bennett and Zaid Al-Alayaa, “Iran-Backed Rebels in Yemen Loot Secret Files About US Spy Operations,” Tribune Content Agency, March 25, 2015; Greg Miller, “Al-Qaeda Franchise in Yemen Exploits Chaos to Rebuild, Officials Say,” Washington Post, April 5, 2015.
assault rifles in hand: Ken Dilanian and David S. Cloud, “U.S. Raids on Al Qaeda Operatives Show Shift Away from Drone Strikes,” Los Angeles Times, October 6, 2013; Ernesto Londoño and Scott Wilson, “U.S. Strikes Al-Shabab in Somalia and Captures Bombing Suspect in Libya,” Washington Post, October 5, 2013; Karen DeYoung, “Heeding New Counterterror Guidelines, U.S. Forces Backed Off in Somalia Raid,” Washington Post, October 7, 2013; Abdalle Ahmed, Spencer Ackerman, and David Smith, “How the US Raid on Al-Shabaab in Somalia Went Wrong,” Guardian, October 9, 2013.
video of the act online: Michael D. Shear and Eric Schmitt, “In Raid to Save Foley and Other Hostages, U.S. Found None,” New York Times, August 20, 2014.
aboard the USS Makin Island: Karen DeYoung and Adam Goldman, “Hagel: U.S. Hostage ‘Murdered’ in Yemen,” Washington Post, December 6, 2014; Adam Entous, “Luke Somers Raid in Yemen: How It Went Wrong,” Wall Street Journal, December 8, 2014.
2,900 of 2001: Government Accountability Office, “Special Operations Forces: Opportunities Exist to Improve Transparency of Funding and Assess Potential to Lessen Some Deployments,” July 2015, 22–23.
women into combat positions: Gayle Tzemach Lemmon, “Special Ops Survey Showed 85% Opposed Serving with Women,” Defense News, December 4, 2015.
interpersonal conflicts: Lolita C. Baldor, “Special Ops Troops Doubt Women Can Do the Job,” Associated Press, April 4, 2015.
emerged in the Cultural Support Team program: Interviews with SOF personnel, 2013–2015.
“… him to cover”: Lolita C. Baldor, “U.S. Commandos Say No to Women in Special Operations Jobs,” Associated Press, December 10, 2015.
CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSION
promulgating definitions of special operations: According to the Defense Department’s current doctrine, special operations are “operations requiring unique modes of employment, tactical techniques, equipment and training often conducted in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive environments and characterized by one or more of the following: time sensitive, clandestine, low visibility, conducted with and/or through indigenous forces, requiring regional expertise, and/or a high degree of risk.” Joint Publication 3-05, “Special Operations,” July 16, 2014, GL-11.
specifying a set of SOF missions: The current list includes: “direct action, special reconnaissance, countering weapons of mass destruction, counterterrorism, unconventional warfare (UW), foreign internal defense, security force assistance, hostage rescue and recovery, counterinsurgency, foreign humanitarian assistance, military information support operations, and civil affairs operations.” Joint Publication 3-05, “Special Operations,” July 16, 2014, II-3.
facilities management and transportation: For a discussion of this issue and the research behind it, see Mark Moyar, A Question of Command: Counterinsurgency from the Civil War to Iraq (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 261–265.
“… primarily for personal glory”: Bob Schoultz, “Ethos or Mythos?” Bob Schoultz’s Corner, November 5, 2010, https://bobscorner.wordpress.com/2010/11/05/ethos-or-mythos/.
tight-knit organization: Interviews with Navy SEAL officers, 2014–2016.
“… should and should not be used”: Alexander Powell, “Advice from SOF on the Use of SOF for the Next Administration,” Center for Naval Analyses, October 2016.
INDEX
Abbottabad
CIA intelligence on, 300–302
Pakistan relations with US after raid on, 306, 325, 338
raid on, 299–300, 302–305, 309, 338, 341
Abizaid, John, 269–270
Abrams, Creighton, 158
Act of Valor (movie), xiv
Advanced Force Operations, 241–242
Afghan Local Police, 289
casualties of, 317
counterinsurgency of, 294, 337
role and authority of, 292–294
Afghanistan
CIA teams in, 224–225, 231–235
civilian casualties in, 248, 294–295
counterinsurgency operations in, 285–287, 290–296, 306–307, 325, 337
counterterrorism operations in, 307–308, 317–319
counterterrorism operations outside of, 280–281, 319–321, 332
insurgent capabilities increasing in, 307–308
Joint Task Force in, 240–241, 255
McChrystal command in, 286–290
social history in, 291
SOF adaptation in, 289–290
SOF and conventional military cooperation in, 287–288, 295–296
Taliban allegiances in, 293
Taliban government in, 222, 285, 318
US support failing in, 317–318
Village Stability Operations in, 289–293, 297, 314–315, 324, 332, 337
withdrawal from, 314–315, 317–318, 332
Afghanistan invasion
Amerine ODA mission in, 230–235
Army Special Forces in, 224–235
Army Special Forces weapons in, 225–226, 228
civilian casualty concern in, 248
Delta Force in, 238–239
end of major combat in, 256
friendly-fire casualties in, 243–244, 250
JSOC first operations in, 237–238
Northern Alliance role in, 223–227, 230, 262
press and publicity on, 237
SEAL Team Six in, 247
Special Forces in, 226–235
Takur Ghar operation in, 246–255
Tora Bora bombardment in, 238–239
See also Operation Anaconda
Africa, 11–13, 38, 39, 320–321
See also Somalia
Aidid, Mohamed Farrah, 193–194
Delta Force mission to capture, 199–201
domestic war waged by, 197
militiamen of, 204
mission to capture aborted, 213–214
See also Task Force Ranger
Air Force, US
Kennedy push for SOF under, 127
unconventional warfare involvement of, 120–121
in Vietnam War, 134
Air Force Nightstalkers, xv, 177, 183–184, 226, 250–251, 300
Algeria, 11–12, 38
Amerine, Jason, 223, 230–235
amphibious warfare, 10, 33, 50, 61, 107
See also Underwater Demolition Teams
Anzio, Italy, 21–23
armed resistance movements, 119–120
armor, 5–6, 205, 209, 214, 251
Army, US, 109–112
Detachment 101 reaction from, 72
Pacific Theater command of, 41–42
Army Rangers, xv, xvi, 158
in Afghanistan, 295, 307–308
in Anzio operation, 22–23
casualties in Italian Theater, 33
character of, 39
in Cisterna operation, 23–28
conventional military conflict with, 39
criticism of, 107–108
&n
bsp; Dieppe raid by, 11
dissolution of, 62
gear of, 205
German heartland raid by, 34–36
in Grenada invasion, 177, 179–180
in Iraq invasion, 259–260
Italian Theater operations of, 2–6, 14–16, 22–33, 38
in Korean War, 99–108, 121–122, 330
in Normandy operations, 29–30, 34
North African operations of, 11–13, 38, 39
origin of, 6–10
in Pacific Theater, 35–38, 39
in Panama invasion, 183–185
in Philippines, 35–39
in Pointe du Hoc invasion, 29–33, 38
prisoners of war liberated by, 37–38
recruitment and training for, 9–10, 13–14, 24, 99, 105, 106–107
Sicilian operations by, 2–6
Somalia raid by, 193–196, 201–212
Takur Ghar mission of, 251–255
in Winter Line battles, 15–16
WWII campaigns scope for, 39, 334–335
Army Special Forces (Green Berets), xv, 218, 297
in Afghanistan invasion, 224–235
armed resistance movements and, 119–120
Bank leadership in, 113–119
Berlin anti-communist protests and, 119
CIA contingent in Afghanistan with, 231–232
CIDG operations under, 128–129, 133–134, 137
counterterrorism operations in Iraq War, 271–272
in El Salvador mission in 1980, 175–176
growth after 9/11 of, 283–284
guerrilla warfare and, 126–127
in Iraq invasion, 258–259
Kennedy support of, 125–126, 153, 328
in Korean War, 118, 121–122
Montagnard tribes trained by, 128–129
in Operation Desert Storm, 188
origin of, xvi, 113–114, 330–331
psychological warfare and, 113, 115–116, 141–142
recruitment and training for, 116–118, 183
Shining Brass manpower from, 138
in Son Tay raid, 151–152
in Vietnam War, 128–135, 138, 141–142, 146, 151–152, 154–155, 331
Arzew, Algeria, 11–12, 38
Aspin, Les, 201, 209, 214
al-Assad, Bashar, 317
Attrition Section, 108–112
Bank, Aaron
Army Special Forces leadership of, 113–119
early military career of, 83–85
as Jedburgh operative, 88–89
training of, 86
Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL Training (BUD/S), 127–128
Beckwith, Charlie
character and reputation of, 158–159, 170–171
Delta Force command of, 159–163
Operation Eagle Claw command by, 163–172
Berlin, Germany, 118–119, 268
Biden, Joe, 286–287, 302–303
Bin Laden, Osama
capture and killing of, xiii, xiv, 303–304, 309, 338, 341
CIA search for, 300–302
escape from Tora Bora, 262–263
governments harboring, 222
Bishop, Maurice, 176–177
Blaber, Pete, 241–247, 259–261
Black Hawk Down. See Somalia
Blackburn, Todd, 195–196
Block, Walter “Doc,” 32
Boren, Doug, 205
Bowden, Mark, xiv, 213
Boykin, Jerry, 211
Bradin, Stu, 309–310
Bright Light, 139–141
Britain
Burmese opinion of occupation by, 74–75
Communists in WWII treatment by, 92–93
Donovan as liaison to, 66–67
Jedburgh training in, 85–86
US aid to, in fighting Nazis, 66–67
British Commando Training Centre, 7, 10
British Commandos, 334–335
in Dieppe raid, 11
as SOF archetype, 7, 42–43
British MI-6, 67
Brown, Harold, 169–171
Bruce, David Kirkpatrick Este, 87–88
Buchanan, Jessica, x–xiv, 322
BUD/S. See Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL Training
Burma, 56
Japanese invasion support in, 74–75
Merrill’s Marauders in, offensive, 57–58, 79, 80
See also China-Burma-India Theater, WWII
Bush, George H. W.
Operation Desert Storm and, 189
Operation Just Cause authorized by, 183
on Somalia missions, 197–198
Bush, George W., 256, 261
counterinsurgency operations under, 296
9/11 response from, 221–222
Cabanatuan, 36–39
Calvert, Greg, 251–252
Cambodia, 144–147, 155
Canadian military, 16–18
Carlson, Evans
character of, 46, 48, 54
Guadalcanal operation command of, 53–54
on guerrilla warfare, 42
Makin Atoll raid command by, 43–48
Carter, Jimmy, 165–172
CENTCOM, 187, 209, 287, 317
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Abbottabad and Bin Laden discovery by, 300–302
in Afghanistan, 224–225, 231–235
in Aidid capture, 200, 201
Attrition Section competition from, 111–112
Delta Force rivalry with, 190
as hostages in Tehran embassy takeover, 164
in Korean War, 120
Pakistan removal of, 306
paramilitary programs in Vietnam, 128–129, 130, 132, 143–144
and PRUs, 143
Cheney, Dick, 189
China-Burma-India Theater, WWII, 70–80, 95
Chindits, 56, 57
Chinese Army, 100–103, 105–106
Chiunzi Pass, Italy, 14–15
Churchill, Winston, 7, 23
MI-6 founded by, 67
raiding strategy of, 11, 38
SOE created by, 80
CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency
CIDGs. See Civilian Irregular Defense Groups
Cisterna, Italy, 23–28
Civilian Irregular Defense Groups (CIDGs), 128–129, 133–137, 152–155, 331
Clark, Mark, 15, 17–18, 21
Clinton, Bill, xvii
Somalia raid authorized by, 198–199
Task Force Ranger response of, 213–215, 218
Cohen, William, 180–181
See also Nunn-Cohen Amendment
Collins, J. Lawton, 104–105
Colombia, 216–217, 218
Columbia Law School, 63–65
Combined Joint Task Force Mountain, 240–241, 255
Congressional Medal of Honor, 65, 87, 136
Contrera, Carlo, 5, 27
conventional military
military leadership of SOF compared to, 339–341
OSS using personnel from, 70
SOF conflict and rivalry with, xviii, 39, 43, 72, 108, 182–183, 191, 287–288, 297, 338–342
SOF cooperation with, 276, 280, 287–288, 295–296, 297, 342
SOF expansion in contrast to cuts to, 311
SOF understanding by, xix
women in, 323–324
costs, xiv, xvii–xviii
counterinsurgency operations
in Afghanistan, 285–287, 290–296, 306–307, 325, 337
under Bush, G. W., 296
counterterrorism and, 272–273, 307, 338
future of, 332–333
in Iraq War, 269–270, 272–273, 279–281, 284–285, 291
Kennedy push for, 126–127, 153–154, 331, 336
under Obama, 284–285, 296
Somalia success with, 218–219
counterterrorism operations
in Afghanistan, 307–308, 317–319
counterinsurgency and, 272–273, 307, 338
in Iraq War, 270–281
JSOC founded for,
171–172
for low-level fighters, 307
outside of Iraq and Afghanistan, 280–281, 319–321, 332
Rumsfeld on, 236–237, 270, 271–272, 280–281, 296–297, 338
SOF and surge in, 157–158
after 2014, 317–319
Crowe, William, 172–173, 181
Crumpton, Hank, 224–225, 238
Cuba, 177, 179
Cunningham, Jason, 254–255
Curl, Vincent L., 76–77
Dailey, Dell, 224, 272
Advanced Force Operations objections of, 241–242
command character of, 237–238
Iraq invasion command of, 259–260, 261
Darby, William Orlando, 295
Cisterna operation led by, 23–28
early life and career of, 8–9
in Gela operation, 5–6
Ranger command of, 6, 12
on Ranger recruitment, 9–10, 13–14
Defense Strategic Guidance, 332
Delta Force
in Afghanistan invasion, 238–239
Aidid capture mission of, 199–201
CIA rivalry with, 190
creation and command of, 159–163, 190
gear of, 205
in Grenada invasion, 177–178
Hussein hunt and capture by, 266–267, 272
in Iraq invasion, 259–260
in Iraq War, 279–280
ISIS combat operations, 316
in Operation Anaconda, 241–246
Operation Eagle Claw mission in Iran of, 163–172, 190
in Panama invasion, 183, 185
recruitment and training for, 160, 162–163
on SEAL Team Six in Afghanistan, 247
in Somalia deployment, 198–199, 201–212, 337
Denis, Henri, 86, 89–90
DePuy, William, 158–160
Desert One, 164, 167–171, 180, 198
Detachment 101, 94
casualties in, 73, 74
in China-Burma-India Theater, 70–80, 95
Eifler command of, 71–74, 77–78
Kachin alliance with, 74–76
Peers command of, 78–79
recruitment and training for, 71, 72, 79
Detachment One, 282–283
Dieppe, France, 11
Donlon, Roger, 136
Donovan, William J.
anti-Axis plots by, 68–69
as British liaison, 66–67
in centralized intelligence service founding, 67–70, 94
early life and education of, 64–65
Eifler dismissed from Detachment 101 by, 78
FDR relationship with, 65–68
as Operation Overlord commander, 87–88
OSS defense by, 93
OSS operations in France and, 81–82, 92