Last, one rarely learns anything from someone whose opinion is the same as his own, and I am privileged to live in a rural environment where the meaning of life is not a question for sociologists, but is found in the Bible. After cutting fifty bull calves and turning them into steers, one gains a different perspective on life.
—Dave Dougherty
NOTES
Introduction
1. Leonard Huxley, ed., Scott’s Last Expedition: Vols. I and II (London: Smith, Elder & Co, 1913), 1:595.
2. Alex Cairncross and Barry Eichengreen, Sterling in Decline (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Pub. Ltd, 1983).
3. Barack Obama News Conference, April 4, 2009, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=85959&st=american+exceptionalism&st1=#axzz1Tn2f9R8i.
4. Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, Histoire Philosophique et Politique des Établissements et du Commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes, 4 vols. (Amsterdam, 1770), quoted in Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, David Walstreicher, ed. (New York: Bedford, St. Martin’s, 2002), 125.
5. Personal interviews by David Dougherty, 1963–65. See also R. A. C. Parker, Chamberlain and Appeasement (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), 44, to see Neville Chamberlain’s opinion of the United States: “We have the misfortune to be dealing with a nation of cads.” Parker also states, referring to 1935: “Enlightened, progressively minded British citizens felt a sense of duty to the world. This went…with a long-established sense of British power and influence…. It still seemed natural to believe that London could and should organize the world” (ibid., 25).
6. Donald Smythe, Pershing, General of the Armies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 267.
7. Niall Ferguson, The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West (New York: Penguin, 2006), xli.
8. Paul Johnson, Modern Times: A History of the World from the Twenties to the Nineties, rev. ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 160.
Chapter 1: American Emergence Amid European Self-Absorption
1. Ronald Spector, Admiral of the New Empire: the Life and Career of George Dewey (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1974).
2. John Barrett, Admiral George Dewey (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1899), 14–15.
3. David M. Potter, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861, completed and edited by Don E. Fehrenbacher (New York: Harper Colophon, 1976), 198.
4. “De Lome Letter,” http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/De_L%C3%B4me_Letter.
5. Henry J. Hendrix, Theodore Roosevelt’s Naval Diplomacy: The United States Navy and the Birth of the American Century (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2009); William Henry Harbaugh, Power and Responsibility: The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1961), 95; William R. Braisted, The United States Navy in the Pacific, 1897–1909 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1958). According to Braisted, Roosevelt “was perhaps more responsible than any other individual…for the shaping of the Navy into an effective instrument of war and diplomacy.”
6. “Report of the Secretary of the Navy, 1898,” http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/spanam/sn98-13.htm.
7. Halford J. Mackinder, “The Geographical Pivot of History,” The Geographical Journal, 23, April 1904, 421–37.
8. Peter Krass, Carnegie (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002), 259; Robert Seager, “Ten Years Before Mahan: The Unofficial Case for the New Navy, 1880–1890,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 60, December 1953, 491–512.
9. See Burton Folsom, Jr., The Myth of the Robber Barons: A New Look at the Rise of Big Business in America (Herndon, VA: Young America’s Foundation, 1991), 75.
10. Barrett, Admiral George Dewey, 59, 66.
11. Sylvia L. Hilton and Steve J. S. Ickringill, eds., European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War of 1898 (Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1999), 12; J. Fred Rippy, “The European Powers and the Spanish-American War,” James Sprunt Historical Studies, 19, 1927, 22–52.
12. Hilton and Ickringill, European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War, 16.
13. Lester B. Shippee, “Germany and the Spanish-American War,” American Historical Review, 30, July 1925, 754–77; Terrell D. Gottschall, “Germany and the Spanish-American War: A Case Study of Navalism and Imperialism,” Ph.D. dissertation, Washington State University, 1981.
14. Louis M. Sears, “French Opinion of the Spanish American War,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 7, 1927, 25–44; James Louis Whitehead, “French Reaction to American Imperialism, 1895–1908,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1943; John L. Offner, “The United States and France: Ending the Spanish-American War,” Diplomatic History, 7, Winter 1983, 1–21.
15. Leonid A. Shur, “Russian Volunteers in the Cuban War of National Liberation, 1895–1898,” in R. H. Bartley, ed., Soviet Historians on Latin America: Recent Scholarly Contributions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), 221–33.
16. J. H. McMinn, “The Attitude of the English Press toward the U.S. During the Spanish-American War,” Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1939; Robert G. Neale, “Anglo-American Relations During the Spanish American War: Some Problems,” Historical Studies: Australia and New Zealand, 6, 1953, 72–84, and his Great Britain and Untied States Expansion, 1898–1900 (Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1966); Geoffrey Seed, “British Reactions to American Imperialism Reflected in Journals of Opinion, 1898–1900,” Political Science Quarterly, 73, 1958, 254–72, and his “British Views of American Policy in the Philippines Reflected in Journals of Opinion,” Journal of American Studies, 2, 1968, 49–64.
17. Nico A. Bootsma, “Reactions to the Spanish-American War in the Netherlands,” in Hilton and Ickringill, European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War, 35–52.
18. Bootsma, “Reactions to the Spanish-American War in the Netherlands,” 50.
19. Francisco Diaz Diaz, “The Spanish American War—One Spaniard’s View,” http://www.spanamwar.com/Spanishview.htm.
20. Sylvia L. Hilton, “The United States Through Spanish Republican Eyes in the Colonial Crisis of 1895–1898,” in Hilton and Ickringill, European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War, 53–70 (quotation on 56). Hilton claims the Republican criticism of the war was in reality directed at the Spanish government. But even if one accepts her view that the Republicans’ ultimate object of vituperation was Spanish government incompetence, leading to a catastrophe, that hardly elevated their view of the United States. Tortuously, Hilton argued, the Spanish Republicans saw the vindication of republicanism in their view that, in a contest between a Republican Spain and a republican United States, Spain would triumph.
21. Larry Schweikart, America’s Victories: Why the U.S. Wins Wars and Will Win the War on Terror (New York: Sentinel, 2007), 70–71.
22. Mark W. Kwasny, Washington’s Partisan War, 1775–1783 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1996), 3.
23. Edward M. Coffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784–1898 (New York: Oxford, 1986), 166.
24. Justin H. Smith, The War with Mexico, 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1919), 1:105–6.
25. Ibid., 1:105; London Times, July 5, 1845.
26. Markus M. Hugo, “ ‘Uncle Sam I Cannot Stand, for Spain I Have No Sympathy’: An Analysis of Discourse About the Spanish-American War in Imperial Germany, 1898–1899,” in Hilton and Ickringill, European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War, 71–93.
27. Ibid., 87.
28. Nicole Slupetzky, “Austria and the Spanish-American War,” in ibid., 181–94 (quotation on 183–84).
29. Hilton, “United States Through Spanish Republican Eyes,” 64.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid., 67.
32. Slupetzky, “Austria and the Spanish American War,” 184.
33. Hilton, “United States Through Spanish Republican Eyes,” 64.
34. Ibid., 65.
35. Slupetzky, “Austria and the Spanish-American War,” 183.
36. J. B. A
tkins, The War in Cuba, The Reminiscences of an Englishman with the United States Army (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1899), 24–26; Joseph Smith, “British War Correspondents and the Spanish-American War, April–July 1898,” in Hilton and Ickringill, European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War, 195–209 (quotation on 198).
37. Smith, “British War Correspondents,” 198.
38. George Lynch, Impressions of a War Correspondent (London: George Newnes, 1903), 100; Daily Mail, May 2, 1898.
39. C. E. Hands, “Uncle Sam’s New Bike,” Daily Mail, June 25, 1898.
40. C. E. Hands, “Seeing the Battle,” Daily Mail, August 4, 1898.
41. Douglas McPherson, Daily Graphic, August 18, 1898.
42. Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire (London: Allan Lane, 2004), 41.
43. Hilton, “United States Through Spanish Republican Eyes,” 69.
44. Slupetzky, “Austria and the Spanish-American War,” 193.
45. Ibid., 69.
46. Hugo, “ ‘Uncle Sam I Cannot Stand, for Spain I Have No Sympathy,’ ” 90. Ludmila N. Popkova, “Russian Press Coverage of American Intervention in the Spanish-American War,” in Hilton and Ickringill, European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War, 111–32 (quotation on 126).
47. Daniela Rossini, “The American Peril: Italian Catholics and the Spanish-American War, 1898,” in Hilton and Ickringill, European Perceptions of the Spanish-American War, 167–79 (quotation on 179).
48. Hugo, “ ‘Uncle Sam I Cannot Stand, for Spain I Have No Sympathy,’ ” 89.
49. Thomas F. O’Brien, Making the Americas: The United States and Latin America from the Age of Revolutions to the Era of Globalization (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007), 71.
50. See also Jack C. Lane, Armed Progressive (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 71, 86–113.
51. Max Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 2003), 132.
52. O’Brien, Making the Americas, 72.
53. Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 3.
54. Ibid., 6.
55. Graham Cosmas, An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish-American War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1971), 121.
56. Ibid., 102.
57. Richard Stewart, ed., American Military History, vol. 1: The United States Army and the Forging of a Nation, 1775–1917 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 2005), 355.
58. Timothy K. Deady, “Lessons from a Successful Counterinsurgency: the Philippines, 1899–1902,” Parameters, Spring 2005, 53–68 (quotation on 55).
59. Ibid..
60. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, 137.
61. Ibid., 136; Dana G. Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean, 1900–1921 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), 65–77; David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States and the Caribbean, 1898–1917 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 100–106; Lester D. Langley, The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century, 4th ed. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 22–27; Donald Yerxa, Admirals and Empire: The United States Navy and the Caribbean, 1898–1945 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 16–20.
62. Smedley Butler, War Is a Racket (Los Angeles: Feral House, 2003); Anne Cipriano Venzon, “General Smedley Darlington Butler: The Letters of a Leatherneck, 1898–1918,” editor’s thesis, Princeton University, 1982.
63. Francis Reginald Wingate, Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan, 2nd ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1968).
64. Jonathan Derrick, Africa’s Agitators: Militant Anti-Colonialism in Africa and the West, 1918–1939 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008).
65. Ibid., 13.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid., 175.
68. Daniel Gazda, Mahdi Uprising, 1881–1899 (Warsaw, Poland: Balonna, S Cl., 2004).
69. Lance E. Davis and Robert A. Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: The Economics of British Imperialism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
70. Niall Ferguson, The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West (New York: Penguin, 2006), 9.
71. Richard Franklin Bensel, The Political Economy of American Industrialization, 1977–1900 (New York: Cambridge, 2000), xvii.
72. Ibid., xx.
73. Waverly Root and Richard de Rochemont, Eating in America: A History (New York: Ecco Press, 1995), 134–35.
74. Larry Schweikart and Michael Allen, A Patriot’s History of the United States from Columbus’s Great Discovery to the War on Terror (New York: Sentinel, 2006).
75. Michael D. Bordo and Hugh Rockoff, “The Gold Standard as a ‘Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval,’ ” Journal of Economic History, 56, June 1996, 389–428; Donald N. McCloskey and J. Richard Zecher, “How the Gold Standard Worked, 1880–1913,” in Barry Eichengreen, ed., The Gold Standard in Theory and History (New York: Methuen, 1985), 66–72.
76. Commercial and Financial Chronicle, June 13, 1896.
77. Bensel, Political Economy of American Industrialization, 26.
78. Appleton’s Annual Cyclopedia of 1892 (New York: D. Appleton, 1893), 616–17.
79. Larry Schweikart and Lynne Pierson Doti, Banking in the American West from the Gold Rush to Deregulation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
80. Lance E. Davis and Robert J. Cull, International Capital Markets and American Economic Growth (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
81. Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1977); and for a few examples of specific roads, see Stewart Holbrook, James J. Hill: A Great Life in Brief (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955); Albro Martin, James J. Hill and the Opening of the Northwest (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976); James Marshall, Santa Fe: The Railroad That Built an Empire (New York: Random House, 1945); Larry Schweikart, The Entrepreneurial Adventure: A History of Business in the United States (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2000), chapter 5.
82. Robert H. Bork, The Antitrust Paradox: A Policy at War with Itself (New York: Basic Books, 1978); Harold Demsetz, “Barriers to Entry,” American Economic Review, 72, March 1982, 47–57; Dominick T. Armentano, Antitrust and Monopoly (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982); and James Langerfeld and David Scheffman, “Evolution or Revolution: What Is the Future of Antitrust?” Antitrust Bulletin, 31, Summer 1986, 287–99.
83. David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977), 248.
84. Ibid., 249.
85. Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Random House, 1979), xxiv.
86. Theodore Roosevelt, “Citizenship in a Republic,” Speech at the Sorbonne, Paris, April 23, 1910, http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/life/quotes.htm.
87. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 9.
88. W. Elliott Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America: A Short History, new edition (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2004), 55.
89. Ibid., 57.
90. Bensel, Political Economy of American Industrialization, passim.
91. O’Brien, Making the Americas, 85.
92. McCullough, Path Between the Seas, 53.
93. Ibid., 58.
94. Ibid., 53, 85.
95. Ibid., 85.
96. Ibid., 146.
97. Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2006), 58–59.
98. McCullough, Path Between the Seas, 378.
99. Ibid., 408.
100. Ibid., 462.
101. Ibid., 422–23.
102. Ibid., 467.
103. Ibid., 510.
104. F. R. Sedwick, The Russo-Japanese War (New York: Macmillan Comp
any, 1909); Ian Nish, The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War (New York: Longman, 1985).
105. Geoffrey Regan, “The Battle of Tsushima 1905,” in The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles (London: Guinness Publishing, 1992), 176–77.
106. Oron J. Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900–1914 (New York: Harper, 1971), 263.
107. Larry Schweikart, “Polar Revisionism and the Peary Claim: The Diary of Robert E. Peary,” The Historian, 48, May 1986, 341–58. In 1986, Larry Schweikart was one of the first historians to examine the Peary Diary, and concluded that it was, in fact, genuine; that it was written on the trail—not afterward as some alleged—and that, combined with the experiences of other explorers, it was consistent with Peary’s claim that he attained the North Pole. To this day, the Cook family has sought to tarnish Peary’s image, while the Scandinavian exploration community, naturally, has sought to reject it in order to bolster the claims of the great Roald Amundsen as the first man to reach both poles and live. Sadly and ironically, I was in the National Archives to examine the diary of one great explorer on January 28, 1986, when another group of explorers, the crew of the Space Shuttle Challenger, died in a horrific explosion.
108. Larry Schweikart, “Evaluating Polar Revisionists: An Examination of Peary’s 1909 Polar Claim,” Historicus, 2, Fall/Winter 1980, 88–126. This is a student journal from Arizona State University, and research for this paper formed the bulk of my later work, cited above in “Polar Revisionism and the Peary Claim.”
109. Schweikart, “Polar Revisionism and the Peary Claim,” 343–44.
110. Susan Solomon, The Coldest March: Scott’s Fatal Antarctic Expedition (London: Yale University Press, 2001), supports Scott’s explanation by citing weather statistics showing that, in fact, the weather was extremely and uncharacteristically horrid. See also Robert Falcon Scott, Scott’s Last Expedition, Vols. I and II, ed. Leonard Huxley (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1913), with volume 1 being Scott’s diary. Roland Huntford, The Last Place on Earth (London: Pan Books, 1985), is highly critical of Scott; David Crane, Scott of the Antarctic: A Life of Courage, and Tragedy in the Extreme South (London: HarperCollins, 2005), more favorable.
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