102. “Faith Staked Down,” Time, February 9, 1952.
103. Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 1 (Norwalk, CT: Easton Press, 1987), 93.
104. Ibid., 133.
105. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1987), 333–34.
106. Ambrose, Eisenhower, 1:134.
107. Ibid., 1:141.
108. Ibid., 1:151.
109. Carlo D’Este, Patton: A Genius for War (New York: Harper 1996). General Donald Bennett, a patient at one of the field hospitals, recalled cheering after Patton slapped one of the soldiers. Bennett, who had suffered from pneumonia and had been moved, could not recall which of the two incidents he had witnessed.
110. Arthur Bryant, The Turn of the Tide (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1957), 540–42.
111. John Keegan, Six Armies in Normandy (New York: Viking Press, 1982), 49.
112. Bernard Law, Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, The Memoirs of Field-Marshal the Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, K.G. (Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1958), 24.
113. “NARA Staff Favorites: Online Records,” http://blogs.archives.gov/online-public-access/?p=150.
114. Keegan, Six Armies, 315–16.
115. Alex Buchner, Ostfront 1944: The German Defensive Battles on the Russian Front 1944 (Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military, 1995), 298–99.
116. Keegan, Six Armies, 66.
117. Winston Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy (Cambridge, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), 227–28.
118. John S. D. Eisenhower, The Bitter Woods (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1969), 381–82.
119. David Dougherty interview with Fertig, 1961; John Keats, They Fought Alone (New York: Time Life Education, 1990), 441–42.
120. Ibid, 384–85.
121. James Bradley, Flags of Our Fathers (New York: Bantam, 2006), 207.
122. Victor Davis Hanson, Ripples of Battle: How Wars of the Past Still Determine How We Fight, How We Live, and How We Think (New York: Anchor, 2004), 22.
123. Ibid., 30.
124. Sadao Asada, “The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan’s Decision to Surrender: A Reconsideration,” Pacific Historical Review, 67, 1998, 101–48: Richard B. Frank, Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire (New York: Random House, 1999); and Robert James Maddox, Weapons for Victory: The Hiroshima Decision Fifty Years Later (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1995). See also J. Samuel Walker, Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), at 131–36, as well as Walker’s latest contribution, “Recent Literature on Truman’s Atomic Bomb Decision: A Search for Middle Ground,” Diplomatic History, 29, April 2005, 311–34. Lawrence Freedman and Saki Dockrill, “Hiroshima: A Strategy of Shock,” in Saki Dockrill, ed., From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima: The Second World War in Asia and the Pacific, 1941–1945 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994); Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000); Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005). Barton Bernstein insisted that the bombs were unnecessary in his “The Atomic Bombings Reconsidered,” Foreign Affairs, January–February 1995, 135–52, but evidence from inside the Japanese government reveals that the war leadership had no intention of surrendering prior to the bombs.
125. Johnson, Modern Times, 426.
126. Ibid.
127. “Speech by Emperor Hirohito,” August 14, 1945, http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/hirohito.htm.
128. Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2002), 463, referencing an April 22, 1946, memo from the U.S. Army Judge Advocate General to the Undersecretary of War.
129. James Bradley, Flyboys (New York: Little, Brown, 2003), 198.
130. Ibid., 173–75.
131. Godfrey Hodgson, The Myth of American Exceptionalism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009); Donald E. Pease, The New American Exceptionalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Deborah L. Madsen, American Exceptionalism (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998); Andrew Bacevich, The Limits of Power: The End of American Exceptionalism (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2009); Seymour M. Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1997); and Michael Ignatieff, American Exceptionalism and Human Rights (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
INDEX
Abdul Hamid II, 221
Abel, Jean-Baptiste, 203
Abortion, 186, 191, 192
Abraham Lincoln Brigade, 285
Abyssinian (Ethiopian) conflict, 168, 273–75
Addams, Jane, 112, 117, 118, 180
Adler, Alfred, 62
Adler, Victor, 188
Advertising industry, 230–32
African Americans
army regiments of, 107–8
See also Racism
African colonies
Boer War, 2, 39, 40, 79, 85, 89, 161, 206, 328
decolonization policy in, 197, 202, 203, 204
economic growth of, 205–6
local administration in, 212
wars in, 37, 40
African National Congress (ANC), 202
African nationalism, 37, 202
Agricultural collectivization, in Soviet Union, 149, 150, 242–43, 244
Agriculture
contraction, and bank failures, 246–47
New Deal policies, 253
political influence of, 245
subsidies, 245–46
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 30, 31, 32
Air power
in Battle of Britain, 327
British, 269, 315, 341, 357–59
and long-range bomber, 174
Nazi Germany, 258, 267, 291, 313–14, 327, 383
in Pacific War, 392–93
Soviet, 341
U.S., 315, 358–59, 381–84
in Western Front, 359–60, 381–84
in World War I, 129, 131, 135
See also Aviation
Aizawa, Sabura, 302
Albania, 165, 275, 335
Alcalá-Zamora, Niceto, 278, 280
Alexander, Harold, 378, 409
Alexander III, Czar, 141
Alexandra, Czarina, 140
Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, 278, 279
Algeria, 196, 203, 219
Allenby, Edmund, 200
Alsace-Lorraine, 161, 265
Altmark, 317
American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), 254
American Bankers Association, 248
American Birth Control League, 185
American Economic Association, 180
American Eugenics Society, 183, 195
American exceptionalism
and ascent to world power, 7–12
European misunderstanding of, 5–6
four pillars of, 4–5, 9, 211, 229
immigrants’ challenge to, 6–7
and Lindbergh’s flight, 176–77
in postwar world, 423–24
American Relief Administration, 241
Amiens, Battle of, 137
Amundsen, Roald, 2, 62
Anarchism, Spanish, 279, 282, 283
Anderson, Kenneth, 377
Andreas-Salomé, Lou, 62
Anfuso, Filippo, 275
Angell, Norman, 69–70, 293
Antarctic expeditions, 2, 61, 62
Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936, 296
Anti-Semitism
and eugenics theory, 181, 188, 189
in Europe, 188–90
of Hitler, 260, 262–64
Jewish response to, 188–89
in United States, 187
See also Jews
Appleton, Thomas, 76
Arab Bureau, 198
Araki, Sadao, 301
Architecture, 64–68
Arctic expedition, 2, 61–62
Ardennes offensive, 412–13
Argentina, 225, 226
Armenians,
Turkish massacre of, 220–22
Arms. See Weapons
Army, U.S. See United States Army
Arnold, Henry H. “Hap,” 358
Art, 69
Asada, Sadao, 417
Assassinations
Japanese cult of, 300, 301
political, 82–83
Astor, William Waldorf, 291
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 221
Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 417–18, 419, 421
Auschwitz, 387–88, 389, 390
Australia, 100, 214, 301, 353, 393–94, 405
Austria
Dollfuss assassination, 271
Nazism in, 265
Nazi takeover of, 286
Austro-Hungarian Empire
assassination of Franz Ferdinand, 81, 82
and Treaty of Versailles, 155, 164, 219
in World War I, 83, 106
Automobile industry, 269, 353
Aviation
design advances in, 173–74
Hughes’s contributions to, 354–55
and Lindbergh’s flight, 175–77
See also Air power
Azaña, Manuel, 279, 280
Baker, Newton D., Jr., 128, 136, 174
Balaclava, Battle of, 38
Baldwin, Stanley, 273, 290, 293, 329
Balfour, A.J., 249
Balfour, Arthur, 155, 162, 200
Balfour Declaration of 1917, 199, 200
Ballets, of Stravinsky, 68
Banks and banking
failures, 246–47
Federal Reserve System, 8, 118, 123, 241, 247
fractional reserve, 248
regulation of, 253
Barbary pirates, 36
Baring, Maurice, 78
Barnes, Ralph, 244
Barnett, Correlli, 276
Barton, Bruce, 231
Baruch, Bernard, 121–22, 293
Bataan Death March, 363, 366
Batton, Barton, Durstein, and Osborn (BBD&O), 230, 231
Bauhaus school of architecture, 67–68
Baur, Erwin, 194
Bayonet charge, 75, 92, 129, 131
Beard, Charles, 21
Beatty, David, 110
Beaverbrook, Lord, 327, 342
Beck, Ludwig, 271, 288
“Beer Hall” Putsch, 261, 265
Belgium
in World War I, 81, 84, 85–90
in World War II, 320, 321, 322
Bell, Alexander Graham, 183
Belleau Wood, Battle of, 129–30
Benedict XV, Pope, 164
Beneš, Edvard, 162, 288
Bennett, Paul G., 407
Bensel, Richard, 43, 119–20
Berg, E.J., 205
Berlin, fall of, 413–14
Berlin Congress of 1878, 220
Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884–85, 220
Bernhardi, Friedrich von, 77, 80
Bernstorff, Joann von, 116
Bethmann-Holweg, Theobald von, 101, 115
Beveridge, William, 360
Bierce, Ambrose, 109
Big Parade, The, 137
Binding, Karl, 179, 192
Birkenau extermination camp, 388
Birth Control Review, 185
Birth rate decline, in Europe, 190–92
Bismarck, Otto von, 117
Bismarck Sea, Battle of, 400
Blackadder Goes Forth, 138
Blitzkrieg (lightning war), 322
Bloch, Ivan S., 75, 90, 139
Block, Harlon, 415
Blomberg, Werner von, 258
Blum, John Morton, 354
Boer War, 2, 39, 40, 79, 85, 89, 161, 206, 328
Bolivia, 225
Bolsheviks
cease-fire with Germany, 126–27, 147, 154
Jewish, 189, 398
Marxism-Leninism, 140–43
revolutionary agenda of, 143–45
seizure of power, 145–48
Bombers, long-range, 174
Bombing raids. See Air power
Bonar Law, Andrew, 214
Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 361
Bonnet, William, 289
Bonus Army, 395
Borah, William, 170, 224
Bormann, Martin, 217
Bourdieu, Pierre, 232
Boxer Rebellion, 8
Bradley, Omar, 396, 407, 413
Brandeis, Louis, 113
Brauchitsch, Walther von, 270
Braun, Eva, 413
Brazil, 225
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 127, 154, 173
Briand, Aristide, 173
Britain
and Abyssinian (Ethiopian) conflict, 273–75
air power of, 269, 315, 341, 357–58
Antarctic expedition of, 2, 61, 62
appeasement of Hitler, 286, 288–91, 293, 295
Arab Bureau, 198
Balfour Declaration, 199, 200
in Boer War, 2, 39, 40, 79, 85, 89, 206, 328
declaration of war against Hitler, 298
diplomatic response to Hitler, 271–72, 276–78
diplomatic response to Mussolini, 275–76
economic growth of, 71
Egyptian/Sudan expedition, 1–2, 37–38
end of world leadership, 2
eugenics movement in, 179, 188, 193
–French relations, 168–69
in Ireland, 41–42
–Japan relations, 172
“lost generation” of, 138
in Middle East, 198–99, 200
as naval power, 60–61, 110, 111, 114, 170, 213–14, 318, 326, 357
Nazi sympathizers in, 291–92
and Panama Canal project, 53
rearmament policy in, 277, 329
and Spanish-American War, 21–23, 27
at Versailles Conference, 155, 159, 160, 164
welfare state in, 360–61
in World War I, 81, 83–85, 90, 93–103, 111, 114, 126, 132, 134, 136
and World War I aftermath, 138, 139
in World War II
Battle of Britain, 326–30
in Burma, 366
at Casablanca Conference, 401–2
casualties of, 414
Churchill-Stalin talks, 410–11
in Crete, 335–36, 374
D-Day invasion, 409–10
fall of France, 320, 321
in Greece, 374
Lend-Lease aid to, 306, 331, 347
in Libya, 335
in Middle East, 336, 374, 375–76
in North Africa, 377–78
in Norway, 318
“Phony War,” 313, 317
and Soviet aid, 341–43, 403
British Empire
American colonies, 210–11
colonial system of, 36–37, 41, 196–97
decolonization policy in, 203
economic costs of, 40, 204–5
equal rights movement in, 197–98
imports from, 311
Mahdist uprising, 34–36, 38–39, 85
security exposure of, 213–14
wars in, 38–39, 40–41
Brockdorff-Rantzau, Ulrich von, 162, 312
Brooke, Alan, 376, 377–78, 406, 407–8
Brooke, Rupert, 78, 138
Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), 132
Brüning, Heinrich, 217, 257
Bryan-Chamorro Treaty of 1916, 224
Bryan, William Jennings, 3, 31, 44, 107, 111
Buckmaster, Elliott, 381
Buck v. Bell, 183
Bulgaria, 165, 256, 335, 402
Bullard, Robert, 132
Buller, Redvers, 328
Bullitt, William, 113
Bülow, Karl von, 88, 96, 97, 98
Bunau-Varilla, Philippe, 52, 53
Burbank, Luther, 183
Bureau of the Budget, 121
Burgdörfer, Friedrich, 191
Burleson, Albert Sidney, 124
Burma, 366, 401
Bushhido, 208, 300, 302, 391, 393
Business and industry
advertising, 230–32
and consumer interaction, 228–30
development of, 44–45
inventors and innovators, 354–56
in Latin America, 226–27
military production, 119–20, 121–23, 353–56
and New Deal policies, 252–53, 354
in northern states, 44
postwar decline, 240
railroad expansion, 45, 72
Rotary International promotion of, 227–28
and tax cuts, 236
trust regulation, 45–47, 240
See also Banks and banking
Butcher, Harry, 409
Butler, Smedley, 34, 223, 224
Byas, Hugh, 303
Caco Wars, 34
Calvo Sotelo, José, 281
Campbell-Bannerman, Henry, 161
Camus, Albert, 360
Canada, 168, 172
agriculture in, 245
autonomy of, 197–98
in World War I, 100
Capitalist system
and American exceptionalism, 5
inventors and innovators in, 354–56
military dominance of, 40
war blamed on, 361
Cárdenas, Julio, 108
Cárdenas, Lázaro, 227
Caribbean interventions, U.S., 33–34. See also Spanish-American War
Carlton, Julian, 64
Carnegie, Andrew, 17, 19–20, 54, 121, 186
Carol II, King of Romania, 272
Carr, Edward Hallett, 291
Carranza, Venustiano, 106, 107, 108, 109
Carter, Jimmy, 11
Casablanca Conference, 377, 401–2, 403
Castelar, Emilio, 24
Catholic Church
Concordat with Nazis, 360
and Holocaust, 389
Spanish anarchist attacks on, 279
in Spanish Civil War, 282–83
Cavalry, end of, 75, 90
CEDA (Confederation of the Autonomous Right), 280
Censorship, in World War I, 124–25
Chamberlain, Austen, 172
Chamberlain, Neville, 272, 286, 288–90, 293, 294, 330, 348
Chamorro, Emiliano, 224
Chaplin, Charlie, 300
Chautemps, Camille, 293
Chelmno extermination camp, 387
Cheney, Mamah, 64
Chiang Kai-shek, 306, 366, 391
Chichibu, Prince, 302
Chile, 225
China
Japanese atrocities in, 391
Japanese expansionism in, 209–10, 301, 304
modernization of, 208
Nationalist, 306, 366, 391
under Sun Yat-sen, 208–9
unskilled labor in, 210
Chlorine gas, 101
Christianity
blamed for Nazi rise, 361
Nazi persecution of, 264
See also Catholic Church
Christie, J. Walter, 122, 356
Christmas truce, 99–100
Churchill, Winston
and Battle of Britain, 327–28
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