Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550-330 BCE
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6 “Where it is necessary that a lie be told, let it be told.” This occurs during the plot to overthrow the magus-imposter and as part of Darius’ suggestion to gain access to the palace. That Herodotus has Darius so blithely advocate lying may be read as Herodotus’ play against Achaemenid ideology and Darius’ central place in creating it.
7 The term “religion” comes from the Latin term religio, a later context than the Achaemenid period. A number of scholars have noted that the term “religion” is anachronistically applied to any period of the ancient Near East. The term is used herein in its wider, standardized, application to beliefs and attitudes about the divine, cultic practices, and associated traditions.
8 The term “Mazdean” is sometimes employed to refer to a system that plainly emphasizes Ahuramazda, but that is not “Zoroastrian” per se; the latter term is reserved for the later form of the religion.
9 Note M. Garrison’s seminal discussion, “Visual Representation of the Divine and the Numinous in Early Achaemenid Iran: Old Problems, New Directions,” Iconography of Deities and Demons, University of Zurich, electronic pre-publication available at http://www.religionswissenschaft.uzh.ch/idd/prepublications/e_idd_iran.pdf
10 See the overview in A. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi, 1997, 387–394, with references.
Chapter 9. Empire at Large. From the Death of Xerxes to Darius II
1 Abu is the fifth month of the Babylonian calendar, so our July-August in 465. The sign for the number of the day is partially broken, so reading the “14th” is uncertain. See M. Stolper, “Late Achaemenid Babylonian Chronology,” in Nouvelles assyriologiques brève et utilitaires, 1999, Note 6.
2 Megabyxos is a slight variation in the spelling of the same name. Ctesias credits Megabyzus with recapturing Babylon after its revolt during Xerxes’ reign (Fragment 13 §26), perhaps the same sequence attributed by Herodotus to Megabyzus’ father Zopyrus during Darius I’s reign (3.153–160).
3 The bibliography is enormous. Note in particular the seminal commentaries to the Books of Nehemiah and Ezra by R. Bowman, Interpreter’s Bible III, 1954. Among others note K. Hoglund, Achaemenid Imperial Administration in Syria-Palestine and the Missions of Ezra and Nehemiah, 1992; H. Williamson, “Judah and the Jews,” in Studies in Persian History: Essays in Memory of David Lewis, eds. M. Brosius and A. Kuhrt, 1998, 145–163; and L. Fried, The Priest and the Great King, 2004, 156–233.
4 Note especially M. Miller, Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity, 1997. The diffusion of status objects and the values that accompanied them may be traced from satrapal courts, modeled on the King’s court, which in turn served as models throughout the Empire.
5 M. Root, “The Parthenon Frieze and the Apadana Reliefs at Persepolis: Reassessing a Programmatic Relationship,” American Journal of Archaeology89, 1985, 103–120 and Miller, Athens and Persia, especially. 218–242 for the Odeion.
6 M. Stolper, Entrepreneurs and Empire: The Muraa Archive, the Murau Firm, and Persian Rule in Babylonia, 1985, 70.
7 Stolper, Entrepreneurs and Empire, p. 96 for Arbareme and pp. 90–91 for Artoxares and Menostanes.
8 The correspondence between Strabo’s “Agradates” and Ctesias’ “Atradates” (according to Ctesias, Cyrus’ father, Fragment 8d §3) is close enough to have been confused in the Greek tradition. Note W. Henkelman’s discussion of Cyrus’ name in “Persians, Medes and Elamites,” in Continuity of Empire(?): Assyria, Media, Persia, eds. G. Lanfranchi, M. Roaf, and R. Rollinger, 2003, 196, n. 48. On Cyrus’ name, compare also J. Tavernier, Iranica in the Achaemenid Period: Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts, 2007, 528–530 and R. Schmitt, Encyclopædia Iranica online, “Cyrus. i. The Name,” http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cyrus-i-name
9 Stolper, Entrepreneurs and Empire, 117–120.
10 Spartan ineptitude is manifest in the first treaty (8.18), the wording of which may be construed as ceding to the Persians all the territory the Empire held at its height – i.e., at the time of Xerxes’ invasion of Greece – but it seems unlikely that anything further than Asia Minor was implied. See D. Lewis, Sparta and Persia, 1977, 90–107 for summary and insightful discussion.
11 Thucydides’ account ends in 411, and the narrative is picked up by Xenophon in the Hellenica. For karanos (Xen. Hell. 1.4.3), see P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, translated by P. Daniels, 2002, 19, linking the term to the Old Persian word kra, which can mean “army” or “people.”
Chapter 10. Maintaining Empire. Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III
1 Hydarnes’ family had been previously decimated, according to Ctesias (Fragment 15 §55–56) because of a love affair between Teritouchmes and his half sister Roxane, and Teritouchmes’ subsequent rebellion. Teritouchmes was married to Amestris, the daughter of Darius II and Parysatis, and sister of Arses (Artaxerxes II). Whatever the truth behind this sordid tale of lust and betrayal – some postulate an Achaemenid reaction to a potential rival’s family – Stateira was spared at the behest of Arses before he became king. See P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, translated by P. Daniels, 2002, 589–590 for discussion of this curious episode.
2 This late testimony is likely colored by Mithraic ritual of the mystery cult popular during the Roman period, for which see the classic treatment by W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, 1987.
3 Diodorus’ stereotypical description of battles and casualties has a check in this instance. Diodorus claims that more than 6,000 were killed in the exchange; a papyrus fragment from Egypt, part of the Oxyrnchus hoard (11.6), gives “about 600” killed for the same battle. P. McKechnie and S. Kern, Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, 1988, 63.
4 M. N. Tod, Greek Historical Inscriptions, Vol. II, 1948, no. 113.
5 See the treatment by R. Van der Spek, “The Chronology of the Wars of Artaxerxes II in the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries,” in Studies in Persian History: Essays in Memory of David M. Lewis, eds. M. Brosius and A. Kuhrt, 1998, 240–241.
6 The core of this material is a group of roughly thirty documents in Aramaic. A seminar at Oxford University was dedicated to study of the archive http://arshama.classics.ox.ac.uk/. For discussion and context of the letter A6.10, see C. Tuplin’s paper “An Introduction to Arshama” available on that web site.
7 Assessment of the evidence from the Attic orators is included in Briant’s important treatment of this period, From Cyrus to Alexander, 656–675.
8 Artaxerxes II also had several sons from his various concubines, 115 sons according to Justin 10.1.1. One may only speculate on the number of daughters of this inexhaustible king.
9 On Khababash, see S. Burstein, “Prelude to Alexander: The Reign of Khababash,” Ancient History Bulletin 14, 2000, 149–154.
Chapter 11. Twilight of the Achaemenids
1 Text treated by A. K. Grayson, Babylonian Historical-Literary Texts, 1975, 34–35; see also R. Van der Spek, “Darius III, Alexander the Great, and Babylonian Scholarship,” in A Persian Perspective: Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg, eds. W. Henkelman and A. Kuhrt, 2003, 311–340.
2 Alexander used the same rationale during his invasion. A number of scholars have wondered whether these Greek cities truly wished to be “liberated” or not. See, for example, P. Briant, Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction, 2010, 36 with references.
3 A. J. Sachs and H. Hunger, Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia I: Diaries from 652 B.C. to 262 B.C., 1988, text no. 330.
Chapter 12. Epilogue
1 G. Rawlinson, The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy, 1873, v.
Index
Abulites 212
Abydos 125, 201, 204, 205
Achaemenes, eponymous founder of dynasty 8, 64, 65, 147, 149
Achaemenes, son of Darius I 116, 159
Acina 72
Aeaces 88
Agesilaus 184–185, 192, 205
Agis 207
Agradates 171, 241
Ahriman 152
Ahuramazda 59, 63, 64, 69, 80, 82, 117–119, 137, 144, 145, 150, 152–154, 172, 182, 183, 194, 235, 240
Akaufaka 119
akinakes 92, 93, 94
Akoris 190
Alexander I 83, 130
Alexander (III) the Great 16, 28, 43, 75, 81, 110, 111, 130, 131, 141, 152, 195, 196, 198–218, 232, 241, 242
Cyrus the Great as model 211–212
Persianization of 216, 218
Alyattes 31
Amasis 54, 56, 57
Ammon 55
Amorges 172
Amyntas 83
Amyrtaeus 190
Amytis, daughter of Astyages 28
Amytis, daughter of Xerxes 160
Anahita 154, 182–183, 194
Anshan 22, 39, 49, 141, 147, 149
Antalcidas 185–187
see also King’s Peace
Apis bull 56–57, 66, 196
Arabia, Arabs 7, 43, 54, 105, 209
Arachosia, Arachosians 69, 72
Arakha
see also Nebuchadnezzar IV
Aramaeans 7, 23, 26
Arbarios 168, 170
Arbela 9, 39, 111, 211
Areia, Areians 7
Argoste 49
Ariaeus 179, 185
Ariaspes 193
Ariobarzanes, commander of Darius III 213
Ariobarzanes, satrap of Hellspontine Phrygia 187, 192
Aristagoras 85–86
Aristotle 201
Armenia, Armenians 72, 111, 139, 168, 198, 235
army 102, 108–111, 112
Greek mercenaries 15, 100, 111, 176, 179, 195, 214
haru-system 170
Immortals 110, 127
Arpates 193
Arrapha 38
Arsames.
See also Arshama
Arsames, grandfather of Darius I 65, 194, 239
Arsames, son of Artaxerxes II 193
Arsames, son of Darius I 189
Arsanes 198
Arses, son of Artaxerxes III 197
Arses, son of Darius II 177
see also Artaxerxes II
Arshama, satrap of Egypt 101, 168, 189
see also Arsames
Arshu. See Artaxerxes IV
Arsites 172, 181, 204
Artabanus 120, 129, 157, 158, 160, 238
Artabazus, commander of Darius III 214
Artabazus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia 101, 106, 131
Artadates 49
Artahsharu. See Artoxares
Artanes 78
Artaphernes, messenger of Artaxerxes I 173
Artaphernes, satrap of Sardis 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 103, 123
Artashata. See Darius III
Artaxerxes I 158, 159–161, 166, 167, 169, 172, 182, 190
Artaxerxes II 15, 29, 108, 125, 161, 165, 169, 176–185, 188–194, 198, 241, 242
Artaxerxes III 184, 189, 191, 192, 193–200, 208, 210
Artaxerxes IV 197–200
Artembares 48
Artemis, Temple of, at Ephesus 31
Artemisia 128
Artemisium 127
battle of 127, 132
Artobazanes 115
Artoxares 168, 170
Artozostre 88
Artyphios 172
Artystone 77, 94, 189
Arukku 35–36, 233
Arxanes. See Arshama, satrap of Egypt
Aryandes 78
Aryenis 31
Ashurbanipal 24–25, 30, 33, 35–37
Ashur-etil-ilani 37
Ashur-uballit II 38
Aspathines 67, 145, 235
Assyria, Assyrians 11, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25–28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37–38, 39, 72
Astyages 28, 31, 38–39, 48, 49, 136, 138, 154, 232
Athamaita 72, 75
Athens, Athenians 14, 17, 76, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88–89, 91, 120, 121, 124, 128–132, 136, 160, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172–175, 184–185, 187, 199, 200
Atossa, daughter of Artaxerxes II 193
Atossa, daughter of Cyrus 77, 94, 115, 117
Atradates 241
Attalus 201
Autophradates, commander of Darius III 206
Autophradates, satrap of Lydia 192
Avesta 152
Babylon 6, 9, 13, 26, 29, 37, 41, 43–47, 50, 52, 64, 113, 116, 120, 134, 136–137, 149, 161, 169, 180, 183, 198, 211–212, 240
Babylonia, Babylonians 7, 11, 13, 22, 23, 24, 26–28, 30, 31, 34, 36, 37, 41, 43, 44, 46, 50, 63, 64, 69, 72, 105, 116, 119, 148, 161, 168–170, 176, 180, 189, 195, 212
Bacchylides 42
Bactria, Bactrians 12, 19, 39, 41, 43, 53, 69, 79, 103, 105, 112, 137, 158, 183, 214, 215
Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex 20
Bagapates 95
Bagoas 197–198
Barca 79
Bardiya 43, 58, 63, 65–68, 74, 75, 78, 160
see also Smerdis; Gaumata
Batis 209, 210
Belesys. See Belshunu
Belshazzar 43
Bel-shimanni 116
Belshunu 169
Berossos 28, 29
Bessus 214–215
Beyond-the-River 162, 169, 210
Boges 133
Bosporus
crossing of 81
Bubares 83
Byblos 208
Cadusians 176, 191, 198, 214
Cambyses I 50
Cambyses II 17, 42, 48, 52–58, 63–69, 75, 77, 78, 80, 95, 101, 125, 127, 138, 148, 155, 159, 171, 195, 234
Candaules 30
Cappadocia, Cappadocians 40, 111, 126, 179
Caria, Carians 101, 133
Carmania 45, 53
Carthage, Carthaginians 55
Carystus 89
Caunus 174
Celaenae 206, 238
Chaeronia, battle of 199
Chaldeans 23, 26
Chios 41
Cicantakhma 72
Cilicia 31, 88, 111, 113, 159, 179, 207
Cilician Gates 207
Cimmerians 30, 33
Cimon 164
Cissians 127
Clazomenae 187
Cnidus 185
Codomannus. See Darius III
Coës 83
coinage 100
Conon 185
Cosmartidene 172
Croesus 18, 31, 40–42, 52
Cunaxa, battle of 179
Cyaxeres 28, 31, 33–34, 38, 75
Cybele 86, 200
Cyme 41
Cyprus 26, 54, 86, 132, 159, 160, 164, 186, 187, 188, 194, 195
Cyrus, king of Parsumash 35, 37
see also Cyrus I
Cyrus I 36–37, 50
Cyrus (II) the Great 7, 8, 13, 14, 17, 18, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35–54, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 74, 76, 77, 78, 87, 94, 95, 101, 108, 115, 117, 123, 125, 127, 134, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 147–150, 151, 152, 154, 161, 162, 169, 171, 175, 177, 189, 194, 212, 214, 217, 232, 233, 234, 241
Cyrus Cylinder 35, 50, 137
tomb of 138
Cyrus the Younger 15, 175, 176, 177–181, 184, 185, 188
Dadarshi, general of Darius I 235
Dadarshi, satrap of Bactria 69, 235
Dahae 119
dahyu, dahyva 96–98, 119, 237
daiva, daiv 118–119
Damascus 9, 112, 162, 183, 207
Damaspia 168, 172
Danube River 5, 80, 81, 82
daric 100
Darius I 5, 7–8, 12, 17, 36, 43, 46, 49, 57–88, 90, 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 113, 114–117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 126, 134, 137, 138, 141, 143, 145, 146, 147–151, 153, 155, 161, 171, 172, 181, 182, 189, 194, 198, 199, 204, 216, 217, 235, 239, 240, 241
Bisitun inscription 59–65, 67, 69, 98, 118, 146, 147, 155
statue of 79–80
tomb of 5, 68, 96, 194
Darius II 136, 168–177, 180, 181, 189
Darius III 198, 200, 205–217
Darius, son of Artaxerxes II 193
Darius, son of Xerxes 158
Dascylium 103, 163, 164, 174
Datis 88, 236
Datiya. See Datis
Dayukku 34
Deioces 32–34
Delian League 132–133, 164, 167
Delos 89, 132
Delphi 31, 40, 128
Demaratus 115, 120, 128
Derbicae 53
Didyma 87
Dilbat 169
Doriscus 126, 133
drauga 63, 150, 153, 234, 238
earth and water, as tokens to the King 83, 84, 88, 122, 123–125, 129, 166, 199
Ecbatana 6, 9, 31, 32, 39, 42, 46, 48, 59, 65, 82, 134, 136, 181, 182, 183, 211, 214
Egypt, Egyptians 7, 11, 12, 26, 28, 41, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 62, 63, 65, 68, 72, 78, 79, 80, 105, 112, 115, 116, 119, 120, 125, 126, 138, 155, 159–160, 162, 166, 169, 176, 179, 184, 188–191, 192, 194–196, 209, 210, 234
Elam, Elamites 8, 11, 19, 21–24, 28, 30, 35, 36, 38, 64, 69, 72, 75, 105, 111, 127, 140, 145, 183, 212, 232, 233
Elamite-Iranian acculturation 21, 51
Ephesus 31, 173
Eretria, Eretrians 85, 88, 89
Esarhaddon 25, 33, 238
Esther 95, 236
Ethiopia, Ethiopians 7, 55, 65, 99, 109, 127, 196
Euesperides 79
eunuchs 95–96, 168, 198
Euphrates River 6, 112, 113, 162, 169, 179, 207, 210
Eurymedon 133
Evagoras 186, 188
Ezra 46, 161–162
Fars 6, 9, 20–23, 25, 39, 69, 99, 108, 112, 134, 137, 140, 141, 151, 213–214
see also Parsa
Frada 69, 72
Fravartish 64, 72
gardens. See royal paradise
Gathas. See Avesta
Gaugamela, battle of 210, 211, 212
Gaumata 58, 63, 64, 67–68, 72, 73–76
see also Bardiya; Smerdis
Gaza 209
Gergis. See Kheriga
Gobares 213
Gobryas 67, 68, 69, 78, 87, 115, 145
Gordion 29, 206
Granicus, battle of 204–205, 206
Great Satraps’ Revolt 191