The Last Voyageurs

by Lorraine Boissoneault

  THE LAST

  VOYAGEURS

  Retracing La Salle’s Journey Across America:

  Sixteen Teenagers on the Adventure of a Lifetime

  LORRAINE

  BOISSONEAULT

  PEGASUS BOOKS

  NEW YORK LONDON

  For Mom and Dad,

  who taught me to make life an adventure

  CONTENTS

  Prologue

  Chapter One MAKE NO LITTLE PLANS

  Chapter Two RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST

  Chapter Three THE LIFE OF A VOYAGEUR

  Chapter Four THE BONDS OF BROTHERHOOD

  Chapter Five STUCK BETWEEN TWO WORLDS

  Chapter Six NO TRAILS BUT THE WATERWAYS THEMSELVES

  Chapter Seven TRAPPED AT DEATH’S DOOR

  Chapter Eight “THE BEGINNING OF OUR HARDSHIPS”

  Chapter Nine THE MOST DANGEROUS PRODUCT THE INTELLECT HAS CONCOCTED

  Chapter Ten PARALLEL VOYAGES

  Chapter Eleven THE GREEN BUOY

  Epilogue

  Endnotes

  Acknowledgments

  Illustrations

  PROLOGUE

  Gary, Indiana

  December 19, 1976

  The travelers trudged across damp dirt roads in a jagged line, some clumped together in groups of two or three, others walking alone. Overhead the sky was clear blue, the occasional wispy cloud drifting by. But few of the men could see the sky, or the icy lake beneath it that lay immediately to the north. They were bent over with unwieldy fifty-pound loads balanced on their backs. The weight of these loads, wooden chests filled with a variety of shelter-building tools and other essential items, was borne by a leather strap wrapped around the forehead. Some supported the load with their hands, while others let their arms dangle limply at their sides. The odd rock that appeared underfoot jabbed through layers of wool and leather, bruising the heel and testing the strength of the moccasins. What the men could see of their surroundings provided little relief from the drudgery of the march.

  When it was founded in 1901, U.S. Steel was the largest business enterprise ever launched; after almost a century in operation, the Gary Works facility was a formidable operation to behold. Close to the horizon, smoke obscured the sky. Tall metal towers belched puffs of dirty white gas. Behemoth machines stretched into the distance: blast furnaces, annealing operations, temper mills, ladle metallurgy facilities. All were connected by an intricate system of railroad tracks and pipes. The air reeked of sulfur and chemicals. The stench burned like bile in the travelers’ throats and seeped into their pores and fibrous wool clothing. For days to come, whenever they sweated they would catch the lingering smell of the steel mills.

  It would have been an otherworldly sight to the French explorers these twenty-three men were impersonating. It was already stark and depressing to the modern travelers who had grown up with the knowledge of steel mills, who regularly used dozens of products made from metal. But for the Frenchmen who had covered the same ground three hundred years earlier, the industrial complex could have been a scene from Dante’s Inferno. All that was missing were a few hundred doomed souls and the Devil himself.

  Reid Lewis had never envisioned himself or his crew in Gary, Indiana, marching through U.S. Steel’s largest manufacturing facility. He’d thought of his expedition as a crusade for the environment and the past. When their route had been determined months earlier, they’d planned to paddle their canoes across the southern shore of Lake Michigan, passing the industry and pollution at a distance. That plan had seemed feasible all the way up until the previous week. Then the weather got colder and the snow came down heavier and the ice along the shoreline grew thicker. Too many days were spent in warm auditoriums doing educational presentations instead of paddling across the unfrozen stretches of lake. It became impossible to safely launch the canoes, trapped as they were behind 8-foot-high palisades of ice.

  The options before them had been limited. They could go immediately south on the Chicago River rather than taking the longer route they’d planned from the St. Joseph River to the Kankakee. Or they could follow the Des Plaines River to the Illinois. Finally, they could abandon their canoes and most of their equipment and start walking across northern Indiana and southern Michigan toward the St. Joseph River. The decision came down to a single question: What did René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle do? He’d never gone down the Des Plaines, and although he had traveled the Chicago River, the journey Lewis and his men hoped to re-create had not followed that path. What La Salle had done on more than one occasion was abandon his canoes and nonessential gear when the winter became too fierce and froze all open water. He either built new canoes later or traded for them.

  It was decided that the modern crew would walk. Walking was unappealing, especially considering the terrain they’d have to cover. But after nearly a week of indecision, any choice was better than more uncertainty. They sent their canoes and equipment ahead by truck since they couldn’t very well rebuild or trade for the vessels—the faux birch-bark boats were among the few of their kind in the world.

  They now found themselves plodding along the dirt and concrete roads as if on a death march. A midnight blue police car escorted them through the mill yard, its lights flashing. Some of the mill’s operations had been halted for the group for safety reasons. One of the security guards told the travelers that this act of charity and goodwill would cost U.S. Steel somewhere around $30,000. If they’d had any other choice, they wouldn’t be walking at all, but at least walking through the mill cut down on the number of miles they’d have to cover. When traveling on foot, every mile made a difference—the shorter the route, the better.

  Workers at the mill stared at the strange men as they marched along with their wooden chests and canvas bags of gear. Some of the travelers wore colorful knitted hats and mittens while others had their sleeves rolled up to the elbow and covered their heads only with bandanas. One young man wearing a green headband had a black-powder musket perched on top of his bags. A few workers shouted questions to the group as its members walked by the red-hulled SS Arthur M. Anderson, a mammoth lake freighter that was famous for being the last vessel in touch with the doomed Edmund Fitzgerald before it sank in 1975. The bulwarks separating the lake from the shoreline were rimmed with ice, the mill’s equipment covered in a thin layer of frost and snow.

  On their first day of walking, the men covered thirteen miles and finished the trek at Marquette Park in Indiana. Exhaustion overtook everyone, dulling their relief at having survived the hike through hell. The crew’s doctor was called upon to bandage blisters and examine sore feet. No one was accustomed to walking such distances carrying heavy loads. At least they didn’t have too many more days of hiking ahead of them: with an average of thirteen miles a day, including a break for Christmas, they would reach the St. Joseph River within a week, on December 26. Locals said the head of the river was still unfrozen. If the men arrived on schedule, they could rapidly paddle from the St. Joseph to the Kankakee and the Illinois River before everything iced over.

  As planned, the men reached the St. Joseph on December 26. The river was frozen.

  Chapter One

  MAKE NO LITTLE PLANS

  Montreal, New France

  1600s

  Had the Biblical chroniclers begun their task several thousand years later, at the dawn of the Age of Exploration, the Genesis version of European history in North America might go something like this: In the beginning there were cod. And man caught the cod and ate the cod, and saw that cod was good.

  However lofty the Europeans’ later motivations for migrating to the New World might have been—religious freedom, king and country, a chance at a new life—what first drove them to mak
e the voyage across an expansive ocean was their enormous appetite for both fish and profit. Cod made up 60 percent of all fish eaten in Europe and could be cooked fresh, or salted, or preserved with lye, as in the traditional Nordic dish lutefisk. The abundance of the fish on the western side of the North Atlantic was a marked contrast to the waters around Europe. When Basque fishing fleets discovered the huge stock around the year 1000, they kept their voyages across the Atlantic secret. For hundreds of years they controlled the market. But the secret didn’t last.1 By 1550, fishermen of multiple European nations were taking advantage of the bounty overseas, and they soon made another new discovery: the indigenous people of the continent, who the Europeans encountered when they set up fish-drying racks on the shores of North America. The Native Americans were curious and eager to trade, and they possessed something that proved to be immensely valuable to the men who came across the ocean: beaver furs.

  And with the cod came the beaver, and man used beaver skin to cover himself, and knew that beaver was good.

  Beaver skins were highly valued because the fur was soft yet waterproof. When the skins were turned into felt they could be used to make the stylish men’s hats that became popular across Europe starting in the mid-1500s. On that continent the animals had been hunted almost to extinction for their pelts, and by the 1600s lived almost exclusively in Russia. This new source of furs on the other side of the Atlantic offered a lucrative opportunity for expansion into the New World. Sailors and merchants from across Europe traversed the ocean for the sake of their stomachs, then stayed to pad their wallets. The French were among those Europeans coming to the New World, and navigator Samuel de Champlain created a permanent French claim to the region by founding Quebec City in 1608. Later he traveled west to explore the Great Lakes, or the “sweet seas,” as he called them.2

  While Champlain tromped across the interior of the continent at the beginning of the 17th century, the private French trading group Compagnie des Cent-Associés held a monopoly over the fur trade. Most Frenchmen avoided the difficult work of trapping beavers themselves; they relied on Native Americans to capture the beavers, then traded guns, pots and pans, cloth, and other goods for the furs. Most prized among the types of furs on offer were castor gras, greasy beaver skins. This variety of pelt was created by the natives, who wore the coarse beaver fur directly against their skin for up to a year. The garment absorbed body oils and the rough outer hairs were rubbed away, leaving the soft undercoat exposed and ready for the felting process.

  The arrival of Europeans caused no small amount of upheaval in native communities. By the early 1600s, Native Americans had been trading for European goods for three-quarters of a century. The race to acquire guns, fabrics, and cooking utensils exacerbated conflicts that had long been brewing between different Native American nations. The Iroquois Confederacy and several tribes that belonged to the Algonquian language group, all of whom lived in the Northeast and around the Great Lakes, were engaged in a bloody conflict over land and resources, which would later be called the Beaver Wars. Although the Europeans may not have understood the nature of the conflict—or realized that they were one of the main causes of it—they were quick to use it to their advantage.

  In 1603, Champlain allied himself against the Iroquois because members of other tribes, such as the Huron, were willing to trade with the French, whereas the Iroquois’ warfare interfered with the trade. In the coming years, the Iroquois began attacking French settlements directly. During the early years of his rule, which began in 1643, King Louis XIV had maintained an “out of sight, out of mind” policy when it came to governing the colony, but as the clashes continued to escalate in frequency and severity, he knew the time had come for intervention. In 1663, he made New France a royal province. The territory would eventually stretch across modern-day eastern Canada to the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi River. In 1665, King Louis sent a 1,250-man regiment to Quebec to defend the colonists. A local government was established and the power was divided between three leaders: a governor who dealt with military and diplomatic affairs, an intendant for economic issues, and a bishop for spiritual matters. A council of colonists advised the governor and intendant.

  In addition to sending more men to the burgeoning colony, King Louis’s minister of finances Jean-Baptiste Colbert initiated a recruitment program called filles du roi (King’s Daughters) so that the men could have suitable European wives and begin the business of repopulating the “savage wilderness.” Although six hundred girls emigrated between 1663 and 1673, their arrival only seemed to cause more problems. Sometimes double and triple marriages were performed, and in other cases no one would marry the women, leaving them to be cared for by the community.3

  After more than a century of Europeans jostling for power and territory in North America, the number of players had been reduced but the stakes were much higher. England seized control of New Netherlands (a territory along the East Coast that included modern-day New York City) in 1664, effectively sealing the Dutch out of the new territory. By that point warriors in the Iroquois Confederacy had chased all the other Northeastern tribes hundreds of miles away from their homes, resulting in a mass migration that forced most tribes to resettle west of the Great Lakes. All this had been done in an attempt to monopolize trade with the Europeans, and it had worked with the English and the Dutch—but the French remained steadfast in their refusal to trade with the Iroquois. With the British and French vying for control of the St. Lawrence River and the Iroquois struggling to maintain their grasp on the region, it seemed as if any outcome were possible.

  It was into this world of foreign peoples and complicated politics that René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle arrived in 1667 at the age of 23. The population of French citizens in North America was around four thousand. Prior to coming to New France, La Salle had spent years studying under the Jesuits. Because he planned to become a priest he had renounced his claim to any land or wealth he might otherwise have inherited from his family in Rouen, Normandy. But after repeatedly requesting and being denied the opportunity to travel abroad as a missionary and teacher, La Salle left the Jesuits with the knowledge that there was nothing for him in France. His older brother, Jean, was a Sulpician priest who lived on the other side of the Atlantic in New France. La Salle decided to use his brother’s connections as a chance for a new adventure and traveled to reunite with him in 1667.

  He was granted a seigneurie from the Sulpicians on the western side of the Island of Montreal later called La Chine, a landholding that came with a number of responsibilities, including constructing homes and a farm and managing the people who lived on it. La Salle spent the next several years learning the languages of local tribes and developing his property. But a life of administrative duties and overseeing a seigneurie wasn’t enough to satisfy La Salle. He wanted to see more of this new world.

  Green Bay, Wisconsin

  September 18, 1973

  “I was taught that our country was developed from the east to the west by the covered wagon,” said Reid Lewis from behind a tall podium, his face peeking over the top and his voice amplified by a foam-covered microphone. He spoke with a French accent and the white feather in his hat fluttered in the wind. “If they tell you that, you say, ‘Excusez-moi, that is not so.’ Because our part of the country was developed from the north to the south, not by the covered wagon, but by the canoe. And it was the French that did that.” He paused to look out at the audience of children and adults sitting and standing in the grass. “And you know something else,” he added, “they will tell you democracy was born in the east, perhaps in Philadelphia. If they tell you that, you say, ‘Excusez-moi, that is not so.’ Democracy began in my state of Illinois because the French men and women voted. And you did not have to be rich. While meantime out East only the men could vote and they had to be rich to vote. So you see, we have very much to be proud of.”

  Lewis was at the end of a months-long canoe journey down Lake Michigan and half of the
Mississippi River, then back up it again. Given another option, maybe he wouldn’t have paddled back up the Mississippi. The river had a crushingly powerful current that constantly pushed against the canoes, and the oppressive summer heat made it feel as if they were sitting in a sauna all day long. But that was the beauty of historical reenactments—the choice was out of his hands. The route had been determined long before Lewis came along to paddle it. It was the passage followed by Louis Jolliet, a French explorer who was the first European to paddle on the Mississippi River three hundred years earlier and the man Lewis was supposed to be impersonating. Jolliet was the reason why Lewis was dressed in a blue shirt with a ruffled collar, the reason why he adopted a French accent whenever he spoke in front of a crowd, and the reason why he found himself on this expedition. Well, technically, Ralph Frese, master canoe builder and amateur historian, was the reason Lewis was on the expedition. Frese had recruited Lewis to lead the group of seven men down the river. But that was just semantics. The initiative began with Jolliet and Jacques Marquette, the Jesuit priest who accompanied the explorer. And now it was ending with them (or rather with modern American men pretending to be them).

  Lewis returned to his home in Elgin, a suburb of Chicago, after his summer reenactment. It was time to get back to the business of living like a 20th-century man. He resumed teaching French to high school students, going on dates with his girlfriend, Jan, and spending as much time as possible outdoors. Frequently he thought back on the Jolliet-Marquette reenactment voyage. It had been physically difficult but mentally invigorating to momentarily escape the suffocating grasp of modernity. Now he was back to seeing all the ways in which the world seemed to be falling apart. The Civil Rights movement had ostensibly ended with the Civil Rights Act of 1968, but there were plenty of unresolved questions on the issue of race; the Vietnam War was still chewing soldiers up and bringing them back with injuries both bodily and spiritual; the Watergate scandal continued to unfold and now Vice President Spiro Agnew was resigning; and the Cold War with the Soviet Union loomed over everyone. Somewhere along the way it seemed to Lewis that society became much more complicated and citizens were caught up in numerous forms of social strife. Who could be sure of what choices would result in a better future?