Pericles of Athens
Page 37
27. See Hartog 2005, 85; and Chapoutot 2008, 168–175. In Germany, French culture was fundamentally perceived as Roman—to the point of French language and literature studies being, still today, classed as Romanistik.
28. See Bruhns 2005, 23.
29. Decultot 2000, 123.
30. For the purposes of his demonstration, Winckelmann revolutionized the history of art by defining “artistic styles” according to a chronological sequence linked with the history of civilizations. Winckelmann thereby initiated a classification still used today, with different titles (“archaic style,” “early classicism of the fifth century,” then “late classicism of the fourth century,” then “Hellenistic style”).
31. Winckelmann 2005 (vol. 3), 191–193.
32. Calvié 1999, 473.
33. Herder 1800, 354. See Tolbert Roberts 1994, 210–211.
34. Herder 1800, book XIII, chap. 3, “The arts of the Greeks,” 367–368 (author’s italics).
35. Herder 1800, 368.
36. Ibid., 368.
37. See Calvié 1999: in 1788, Schiller wrote The Gods of Greece, and ten years later Hölderlin’s great poem, Hyperion, was published (1797–1799), setting the seal on the success of a form of Hellenizing paganism.
38. Hegel 1902 (citations p. 343 and p. 45).
39. Roberts 1994, 219.
40. Lyttleton 1760, 254–255.
41. Ibid., 256.
42. See Murray 2010, which questions the thesis of a unanimously negative view of Athens in the eighteenth century.
43. Gast 1753, 471.
44. Ibid., 484.
45. Ibid., 488.
46. Young 1786. On the context in which the work was written, see Murray 2010, 144 and 149.
47. Young 1786, 155.
48. Ibid., 152–153.
49. Gillies 1820 (vol. 2), chap. XIII, 108, n. 10.
50. Ibid., 126.
51. Mitford 1814, 100. On pages 127–130, Mitford gives a guarded appreciation of Pericles: he recognizes his role as a corruptor and his detestable political behavior, but also takes into account the great respect shown him by Thucydides, Xenophon, and Isocrates.
52. Thirlwall 1835–1844. On the differences between Thirlwall, who remained close to Germanic historiography (he translated Niebuhr as soon as his work appeared), and Grote, see Momigliano 1966, 61–62.
53. Grote 1869–1870 (vol. 5), 440.
54. Ibid., 437–439 and 441–442.
55. Ibid., 442.
56. Ibid., 443.
57. See Momigliano 1966, 60.
58. Cox 1874, 184.
59. Mérimée 1868, 185. See Pontier 2010, 635–648.
60. Mérimée 1868, 186.
61. Jouanna 2005, 311–321.
62. See Grunchec 1983, 27. The most that can be done is to add a Pericles—in the form of a mere bust—painted by Antoine-Jean Gros on a ceiling in the Louvre Museum in 1827, and a statue of Pericles handing out crowns to artists, sculpted by Jean-Baptiste Debay and installed in the Tuileries in 1833. In 1852, Philipp von Foltz, a German painter, depicted Pericles addressing the people from the bema, with the Acropolis in the background.
63. Duruy 1867, 155.
64. Ibid., 333.
65. Ibid., 156.
66. Nisard 1851. See Avlami 2001, 77.
67. See Hansen 1992, 21.
68. See Chauvelon 1902, 97–99.
69. Mazzarino 1990, 359–370; and Montepaone, Imbruglia, Catarzi, and Silvestre 1994.
70. Murari Pires 2006, 811.
71. Niebuhr 1852a (vol. 2), 54 and 391, and (vol. 1), 54; and Niebuhr 1852b (vol. 2), 352.
72. Niebuhr 1852a (vol. 1), 211. See also von Ranke 1975, 256–257.
73. Von Ranke 1867–1890 (vol. 53/54), 26–31 and 58–59.
74. Curtius 1857–1867; French trans.: Curtius 1880–1883; English trans.: Curtius 1868–1873.
75. Curtius 1883, 80, which states: “even more rewarding is the task of whoever, led by Thucydides, follows, with pious admiration, the traces that this great spirit [Pericles] has left on the history of his people.” The English translation does not include this important passage.
76. Curtius 1871, 459 and 442 (book III, chap. 3).
77. Ibid., 468–469.
78. Ibid., 461–462.
79. Ibid., 459.
80. Schmidt 1877, 3. See Will 1995, 8.
81. See Bruhns 2005, 26.
82. On the context of Droysen’s work, see the fine preface by Payen 2005, 31–36.
83. Droysen 1980, 12.
84. In the preface to the first German edition of vol. 3 of the Histoire de l’Hellénisme (which does not appear in the French translation), Droysen wrote as follows: “Who can fail to admire the Athens of Themistocles and Pericles? But why forget that the city founded a tyranny, extended it to cover half the Greek world and administered it quite harshly, knowing full well that this was tyranny” (author’s translation), Droysen 1980, xxi.
85. Böckh 1886, 710 (the passage is not reproduced in the English edition). He reproached the Athenians in particular for having paid citizens for their public responsibilities and services (Böckh 1842, 226–227).
86. Böckh 1842, 195.
87. Ibid., 228–232.
88. Beloch 1967, iv. See also Beloch 1913, 13: “However, for Grote, the Greeks are basically simply the English of the mid-nineteenth century in disguise; the democrats are the liberals, the oligarchs the conservatives, and since the author is a liberal, the Greek democrats are always in the right, the oligarchs always in the wrong; Grote’s history thus becomes a magnification of the Athenian democracy. That is a reaction that is altogether legitimate and useful to the hitherto prevailing under-estimation of democracy; only it is just as unhistorical as the opposite view.” (“Dabei sind die Griechen für Grote im Grunde nichts weiter, als verkleidete Engländer aus der Mitte des XIX. Jahrhunderts; die Demokraten sind die Liberalen, die Oligarchen die Konservativen, und da der Verfasser zu den Liberalen gehörte, haben die griechischen Demokraten immer Recht, und die Oligarchen immer Unrecht; Grotes Geschichte wird so zu einer Verherrlichung der athenischen Demokratie. Das war als Reaktion gegen die bis dahin herrschende Unterschätzung dieser Demokratie ganz berechtigt und nützlich; nur ist es ebenso unhistorisch, wie die entgegengesetzte Auffassung.”).
89. Beloch 1914, 154–155.
90. Ibid., 319–310 (author’s translation): “Aber der Spruch sollte auch nicht den Verwaltungs-beamten treffen, sondern den Politiker, der aus persönlichen Motiven den hellenischen Bruderkrieg entzündet und sich damit des größten Verbrechens schuldig gemacht hatte, das die ganze griechische Geschichte kennt.” See also Beloch 1967, 19 f. and the commentaries by Christ 1999, 92.
91. Burckhardt 2002, 78.
92. Ibid., 77.
93. Drerup 1916, 1–4. A few years later, the historian returned to this theme in order, this time, to attack the politicians of the Weimar Republic. He lamented the fact that “in our country formerly so proud, here too a Republic of lawyers had been established, a Republic of the streets and demagogues, of which a Cleon and Aristophanes’ sausage-merchant would have been proud” (Drerup 1923, 1).
94. See Pernot 2006.
95. On Phi-Phi, see L’encyclopédie multimedia de la comédie musicale théêtrale en France (1918–1940), which offers an opportunity to listen to this work, available at http://194.254.96.55/cm/?for=fic&cleoeuvre=258 (accessed 23 August 2013).
96. “Pericles on the Athenians” (1915), advertisement published by the Underground Electric Railway Company. See Turner 1981, 187.
97. See Zimmern 1911, 202. The citation is taken from Thucydides, 2.43.4. Zimmern may possibly have put in a word of his own on the subject of this affair, for he was entrusted with various responsibilities on the Board of Education.
98. Müller 1824.
99. See the illuminating remarks of Hansen 2005, 15.
100. See Churchill 1951, 81 (citation taken from Thucydides, 2.64.6).
101. Churchill, “A Speech to the Ho
use of Commons, June 4, 1940,” in Churchill 1953, 195. See Kagan 1991, 275.
102. Murray 1946, 202, cited by Roberts 1989, 204.
103. See Murray 1946, 200–201, who compares Demosthenes’ Philippics to Churchill’s famous “Arms and the League.” See Rougemont 1996.
104. See Jones 1978, 109–110.
105. Most 1995, 438–440.
106. Andurand 2010.
107. Pohlenz 1920, 69 (author’s translation).
108. Jaeger 1965, 407–409.
109. Ibid., 409 (author’s italics).
110. Ibid., 409.
111. See Näf 1992, 125–146.
112. Among the many examples of this kind of slanted history, see in particular Berve 1937; John 1939; Lüdemann 1939; and Brake 1939. To take but one example, Berve praised Sparta for “the education of its young, its community spirit, its military form of life and the way in which the individual was integrated and proved his worth by his brave deeds,” and finally for the “type of Herrenmensch” (superior being), who emerged from “natural selection” and “shared blood” (Berve 1937, 7, 39, and 45).
113. Chapoutot 2008, 265–281 (citation pp. 276–277).
114. A. Hitler, speech of 4 August 1929, in Hitler 1992, vol. 2, 2, 348.
115. Arminius had been exalted as the first Germanic hero ever since The Battle of Arminius (Die Hermannsschlacht) by Heinrich von Kleist (1809), as was Vercingétorix celebrated in France.
116. Schachermeyr 1933, 41. See the close analyses by Chapoutot 2008, 323–324.
117. Brauer 1943, 131–136, cited by Näf 1986, 161.
118. Brauer 1943, 135.
119. Speer 1976, 110. See also Speer 1980, 20 April 1947. The former Nazi dignitary recorded a conversation with Hitler on 20 April 1943, when Hitler held forth on the action of great men in history and, in particular, on Pericles.
120. Hitler 1926, 289–290, cited by Chapoutot 2008, 298.
121. Speer 1976, 110.
122. See Scobie 1990, 15–16.
123. Zschietzschmann 1940, 14 and 16.
124. Berve 1940, 21. On Berve, Hitler, and Pericles, see Christ 1999, 249; and Chapoutot 2008, 324–326.
125. On the career of Berve, see Nippel 2010, 278–279.
126. Chapoutot 2008, 326. Germania was the name given by Hitler to the project of the urban renewal of the German capital.
127. Berve 1940, 21.
128. Ibid., 25: “er war auch während der vergangenen 15 Jahre in einem Stahlbad gehärtet, so dass er nun erst recht gegenüber inneren Anfeindungen und äußeren Schwierigkeiten eine schwer zu brechende Widerstandskraft besaß.” See Christ 1999, 195 and 244.
129. Churchill was not alone in admiring the stratēgos. The members of the French Resistance had likewise made Pericles one of their heroes; the Mouvements Unis de Résistance (MUR) had given the stratēgos’s name to their network for training maquis cadres. See Dabdab Trabulsi 2011, 13.
130. Glotz 1931, 170. See “Périclès et l’impérialisme pacifique” (pp. 166–214); “le socialisme d’Etat” (pp. 178–187).
131. De Sanctis 1944. I am here following the line of thought suggested by Dabdab Trabulsi 2011, 21–38 and 197–199.
132. De Sanctis 1944, 184; Dabdab Trabulsi 2011, 31.
133. De Sanctis 1944, 218.
134. Ibid., 274.
135. Ibid., 131: “L’imperialismo pacifico di Pericle.”
136. See Canfora 1976.
137. Homo 1954.
138. Ibid., 66.
139. Ibid., 97. On directed democracy, see ibid., 124–128.
140. Ibid., 78.
141. Chêtelet 1982, 17 and 21.
142. Lévêque 1964, 265–266. See Chêtelet 1982, 163–166; and Delcourt 1939, 171, n. 1. See the illuminating remarks of Mossé 2005, 240–242.
143. Lévêque 1964, 265–266.
144. Homo 1954 and Chêtelet 1982. The publication date of the biography by Marie Delcourt was prewar 1939.
145. Lévêque and Vidal-Naquet 1996; and Loraux 2002.
146. See Roberts 1994, 265–270. As early as 1959, Finley was describing the advance “of slavery and freedom, hand in hand” (Finley 1959, 164).
147. Keuls 1993, 88. See, earlier, Pomeroy 1975.
148. Delcourt 1939. See Dabdab Trabulsi 2011, 87–109 (esp. 98–99).
149. Delcourt 1939, 118. The cleruchies are thus judged to be just a “simple instrument of domination,” at the same time as a “financial expedient” (p. 120).
150. See, for example, Strasburger 1958, according to whom Thucydides more or less secretly condemned the imperialism embodied by Pericles. See Nicolai 1996.
151. Ehrenberg 1968, 238.
152. Starr 1974, 306. In the writings of Peter Green, then a professor of classics at the University of Texas and the author of numerous popular works on the ancient world, this critique reached its climax. According to him, Pericles was a quasi-dictator who had subjected the Athenian demos to a veritable brainwashing; and the democratic regime owed its survival only to the rabble-rousing leaders who followed. See Green 1972.
153. Hornblower 1994, 174.
154. Samons II 2004, 55–56 and 62. After deploring the coldness of Pericles and his lack of compassion (pp. 64–65), he also attacks the misthos, which undermined civic values (p. 173), in keeping with the purest Plutarchian tradition. See the review by Mossé 2006/2007, 467–470.
155. Samons II 2004, 130–131 and 190.
156. Luginbill 2011, 256.
157. See earlier, chapter 4; and Dabdab Trabulsi 2011, 113–137 [“Un Périclès du Nouveau Monde. Donald Kagan et son Périclès US”].
158. Mattingly 1966, 212–213: “None of the inscriptional evidence for fully organized Athenian imperialism can be dated before 431 B.C.”
159. Bengtson 1983, 109 f., here 142 (author’s translation). See also Weber 1985.
160. Admittedly, official instructions now encourage one to turn away from an idealized history, emphasizing “the restrictive concept of citizenship developed in fifth-century Athens, and … the limits of Athenian democracy: citizenship founded on birth-rights (but denied to women), which excluded foreigners and slaves and the functioning of which was flawed” (Bulletin Officiel du ministère de l’Education Nationale et du ministère de la Recherche, HS no. 6, 31 August 2000). Nevertheless, whenever it is a matter of considering the political or artistic history of the Greek world, the stratēgos continues to attract most of the attention.
161. See for example Nemo 1988.
162. Yourcenar 1989, 14.
163. See Wyke 1997 and Aziza 2008.
164. The only exceptions are a cinema adaptation of the operetta, Phi-Phi, in 1926, by Georges Pallu alias Demetrios Saixi (Isis Film-Les Productions Nathan, France) and, even more marginally, a Greek film, Hippocrates and Democracy (Ippocratis kè Dhimokratia), by Dimis Dadiras, in 1972—in which Hippocrates tries to fight the 430 “plague” in Athens, and in the course of his peregrinations encounters Socrates, Phidias, Euripides, and Pericles. See Dumont 2009, 223–224.
165. An analysis of the situation has been carried out via www.gamekult.com (accessed 23 August 2013). It reveals several definite trends in the use of Antiquity. Games involving war and conquest predominate, some of which are spinoffs from the cinema (such as The Three Hundred and Gladiator) or from comic strips (for example, the many Asterix volumes). Rome is also very much present, particularly in the successful series of Rome: Total War. There are also a number of Alexander games—involving strategies for conquering the whole world—and a few games that use Sparta as a framework (Spartan: Total Warrior, which was produced in 2005 and sold widely).
166. Martin 2000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABBREVIATIONS
ATL = Meritt, B. D., H. T. Wade-Gery, and M. F. McGregor. 1939–1953. The Athenian Tribute Lists, 4 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brun = Brun, P. 2005. Impérialisme et démocratie. Inscriptions de l’époque classique. Paris: Armand Colin.
FG
rHist = Jacoby, F., ed. 1922–1958. Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker. Berlin: Weidmann [new ed. 15 vols., 1968–1969. Leiden: Brill].
Fornara = Fornara, C. W. 1983. Archaic Times to the End of the Peloponnesian War, 2nd ed. Cambridge/London/New York: Cambridge University Press [1st ed. 1977].
Gigon = Gigon, O. 1987. Aristotelis Opera, vol. 3. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.
IG I3 = Lewis, D. M., ed. 1981–1998. Inscriptiones Graecae, vol. I (3rd ed.), Inscriptiones Atticae Euclidis Anno Anteriores, 3 vols. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.
IG II2 = Kirchner, J., ed. 1913–1940. Inscriptiones Graecae, vol. II (2nd ed.), Inscriptiones Atticae Euclidis Anno Posteriores, 5 vols. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.
K.-A. = Kassel, R., and C. Austin, ed. 1984–. Poetae Comici Graeci. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.
ML = Meiggs, R., and D. Lewis, ed. 1989. A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions: To the End of the Fifth Century BC, vol. 1. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press [1st ed. 1969].
SSR = Giannantoni, G., ed. 1990. Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae, 4 vols. Naples: Bibliopolis.
Syll.3 = von Gärtringen, H. ed. 1915–1924. Sylloge inscriptionum graecarum (3rd ed.), 3 vols. Leipzig: S. Hirzel.
Thalheim = Thalheim, T., and F. Blass, eds. 1914. Antiphon, orationes et fragmenta. Leipzig: Teubner.
Wehrli = Wehrli, F., ed. 1944–1945. Die Schule des Aristoteles, vol. 1 [Dikaiarchos] and vol. 2 [Aristoxenos]. Basel: Schwabe & Co.
Adair, D. C. 1955. “A note on certain of Hamilton’s pseudonyms.” William and Mary Quarterly, series 3, 12: 282–297.
Aizpurua, P., ed. 1994. Frédéric II de Prusse. De la littérature allemande. Paris: Le Promeneur.
Allen, D. S. 2000. The World of Prometheus: The Politics of Punishing in Democratic Athens. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ampolo, C. 1997. Storie greche. La formazione della moderna storiografia sugli antichi greci. Turin: G. Einaudi.
Andurand, A. 2010. “Lectures allemandes de l’oraison funèbre de Périclès (1850–1930),” in Ombres de Thucydide. La réception de l’historien depuis l’Antiquité jusqu’au début du XXe siècle, ed. V. Fromentin, S. Gotteland, and P. Payen. Bordeaux: Ausonius, 573–586.
Arnaud-Lindet, M.-P. 2001. Histoire et politique à Rome. Les historiens romains (IIIe av. J.C.–Ve ap. J.C.). Rosny: Bréal.