Lincoln's Code
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26. [A Federal prisoner, returned from prison, full-length, seated, nude, facing front], c. 1861–1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
27. Confederate prisoners at Belle Plain Landing, Va., captured with Johnson’s Division, May 12, 1864. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
28. Alexander Gardner, [Abraham Lincoln, full-length portrait, seated, facing slightly right], 1863. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
29. [General Nathan B. Forrest], c. 1861–1865. Brady-Handy Photograph Collection, Library of Congress.
30. Alexander Gardner, [Washington, D.C. Hanging hooded bodies of the four conspirators; crowd departing], 1865. Selected Civil War photographs, 1861–1865, Library of Congress.
31. Drawing rations; view from main gate. Andersonville Prison, Georgia, August 17, 1864. National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 162, 165-A-445.
32. Alexander Gardner, [Washington, D.C. Reading the death warrant to Wirz on the scaffold], 1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
33. Thomas Nast, Union soldiers in Andersonville prison / The rebel leader, Jeff Davis, at Fortress Monroe, 1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
34. Harris & Ewing, photographer, General G. Norman Lieber, c. 1905. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
35. Te-he-do-ne-cha. (One who forbids his house.) Sioux warrior, executed at Mankato, for taking part in Indian Massacre of 1862, c. 1857–1863. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
36. Modocs scalping and torturing prisoners, from Harper’s Weekly, 1873. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
37. Lewis Herman Heller & Carleton E. Watkins, Schonchin and Jack, 1873. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
38. Chiricahua Prisoners, including Geronimo, 1886. National Archives and Records Administration, 111-SC-82320.
39. Francs-tireurs Arronssohn, tirailleurs des ternes: ils en ont vu bien d’autres, from Souvenirs du siége de Paris: les défenseurs de la capitale (Paris: Bureau de l’ Eclipse, 1871). Mid-Manhattan Library, Picture Collection, New York Public Library.
40. Johann Caspar Bluntschli, from Zürich: Geschichte, Kultur, Wirtschaft (Zürich: Gebr. Fretz, 1933), courtesy Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University.
41. Alfred Thayer Mahan, c. 1900. LC-USZ62–3124, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
42. [Water Cure], 1899–1902. 111-SC-98202, National Archives and Records Administration.
43. Harris & Ewing, photographer, Plattsburg Reserve Officers Training Camp. Major Edwin F. Glenn, U.S.A., 1916. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
Index
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.
abolitionism, 111, 189, 198, 200–206, 216–19, 321
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., 148, 160, 168–69, 206
Adams, Henry, 63
Adams, John, 44, 46, 47, 75, 134
presidency of, 54, 78, 87, 310
Adams, John Quincy, 49, 67, 206, 224, 352
diplomatic service of, 76, 89
presidency of, 76, 78, 87, 105, 176
as secretary of state, 76, 103, 104–5, 134, 228
on slavery, 49, 75–78, 204, 228, 310, 369
Admiralty Court, British, 154–55
Afghanistan, 354
Africa, 164
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 353–54, 356, 358
Akerman, Amos, 336
Alabama, 95, 96, 97, 190, 191, 335
secession of, 136–37
Alabama, 308
Alaska, 359
Alexander I, Czar of Russia, 76, 78
Allegheny Mountains, 13
Allen, Ethan, 21, 230, 253
Allison, Abraham, 287
al-Qaeda, 372
Ambrister, Robert, 98–101, 103–5, 127
Amelia, 56–57
American Law Journal, 82
American Peace Society, 131, 265
American Reformed Church, 205
American Revolution, 4, 5–6, 7, 19–43, 45, 48, 66, 100, 114, 208
battles of, 9, 14, 16, 20, 22–26, 28, 29, 34, 35, 37, 54, 72, 203
destructiveness of, 38–41, 43
hand-to-hand combat in, 24
Indians in, 14–16, 33–36, 38, 89, 91
laws of war legacy of, 43–48
naval battles in, 88
North American colonies rallied in, 15–16
slaves in, 29–32, 34, 72–77
Southern phase of, 27, 38–39
winding down of, 42–43
see also British Army; Continental Army
American Society of International Law, 364
American Universal Geography, The (Morse), 51–52
Ampudia, Pedro de, 118
Anaya, Pedro Maria, 120
Anderson, Bloody Bill, 189
Andersonville prison camp, 260–61, 267, 278, 287, 298–301, 303, 308
André, John, 24–26, 24, 27, 106, 126
Andrew, John, 203
Annapolis, Md., U.S. Naval Academy at, 87, 172, 180, 346
Antarctica, 164
Antietam, Battle of, 187, 214–15, 230, 254
Union casualties at, 1
anti-Masonry, 132
antislavery movement, 30–31, 75, 151, 169, 179, 188–89, 198, 200–206, 264, 310
Apache Indians, 89, 335–36
Appomattox Courthouse, Va., 285–87, 304, 322
Arapaho Indians, 336
Arbuthnot, Alexander, 98–101, 103–5, 127
Ardagh, John, 351
Arizona Territory, 335
Arkansas, 189, 190, 192
Arkansas River, 105
Army, U.S., 50, 89, 95
antiguerrilla forces in, 125, 126
Arkansas Volunteers in, 121
courts-martial in, 361
Department of Dakota in, 328
Department of the Northwest in, 330
desertion from, 125
Division of the Pacific in, 334
1st Pennsylvania of, 118–19
Indian wars with, 328–38
in Mexican War, 117–26
officers of, 85–86, 109, 115, 122, 129, 137, 141, 187, 357–58
Philippine Department of, 337, 354–62
plunder and murder by, 107, 118–19, 121–23
professionalizing of, 84–86
3rd Colorado Volunteers of, 336
wagon trains of, 120, 121, 125, 132
in War of 1812, 67–69, 85
Army and Navy Chronicle, 86, 92
Army and Navy Journal, 318
Army Corps of Topographic Engineers, U.S., 197
Army Medical Museum, 89
Army Officer Corps, U.S., 357–58
Army of Occupation, U.S., 117–19
Army of the Potomac, 208–11
McClellan and Burnside fired as commanders of, 2
Army War College, 363
Arnold, Benedict, 20, 25, 38
Arnold, Samuel, 291–92, 294
Arrault, Henri, 339
Arthur, Chester, 303
Articles of War, 20, 86, 122, 229, 264, 270, 292, 333n
Ashburton, Lord, 116–17
asphyxiating gases:
prohibition of, 3, 4
World War I use of, 3
assassinations, 13–14, 296, 325, 392
prohibition of, 2, 4, 18, 231–32, 244, 289
see also Lincoln assassination
Athens, 175, 177
Athens, Ga., 274
Atlanta, Ga.:
evacuation of, 251–52
Sherman’s assault on, 250–52, 276–77, 278, 279–80, 282, 337
Atlantic Monthly, 187
Atlantic Ocean, 26, 52, 65, 81, 88, 144, 164–65, 200, 328, 363
Atzerodt, George, 291, 292, 294, 301
Auerstadt, Battle of, 173, 177
Augustine, Saint, 17, 236
Aurora, 68
Austria, 133, 134
French wars with, 3, 52
Prussian war with, 328, 341, 343
Bahamas, 153–54
Bailey, Theodorus, 152
Baker, Frank, 202
Baker, Orrin, 299
Baldwin, Henry, 102
Ball, Flamen, 272
Baltimore, Md., 82
Barbour, James, 102
Barbour, William, 120
Barclay, Thomas, 68
Barnum, P. T., 297
Bates, Edward, 145, 148, 150, 166, 180, 207, 214, 228, 241, 290
Batista, Don Giovanni, Marquis Rodio, 127
Baton Rouge, La., 275
Battle Hymn of the Republic, 356
Beall, John Yates, 296–97, 302
Beecher, Henry Ward, 206
Belgium, 67, 342, 344–45
Bell, James, 354, 358
Bemis, Samuel, 60
Benjamin, Judah, 145, 158–59
Bentham, Jeremy, 175, 253–54
Benton, Thomas Hart, 102, 116, 197
Berkeley, George Cranfield, 62–63
Berlin, 172, 173–74, 184
Berlin Decree, 64
Bernard, Montague, 155
Betsy (slave), 226
Betts, Samuel, 153, 162
Beveridge, Albert, 54
Bible, 17, 52, 288, 289
Biddle, James, 88
Bill of Rights, 317
Bingham, John A., 265, 266, 291, 293–94, 296, 314–15, 317
biological weapons, 3
Black, Jeremiah, 309–10
Black Codes, 304
Blackfeet Indians, 328
black freedmen, 229, 242–43, 261, 265
Reconstruction and, 304–8
rights of, 304–8
suffrage of, 306–7
white assaults on, 314
Black Hawk War of 1832, 141–42, 332
Black Sea, 133
Blackstone, Sir William, 30–31, 83, 128, 228
Blaine, James G., 303, 342
Blair, Montgomery, 145, 148
Bledsoe, Albert Taylor, 273
blockades, 59–60, 87, 88, 133–35, 162–63
Confederate critique of Union blockade, 223
as inspiration for postwar Congress, 306
John Marshall’s doctrine of, 58
running the Union Navy’s, 268
Union Navy’s, 144–57, 160, 224
Bluntschli, Johann Caspar, 327, 342, 343, 362, 363
Board of General Officers, 25
Board of Trade, British, 63
Boer War, 354
Bolles, John, 265
Boone, Daniel, 331
Booth, John Wilkes:
accomplices of, 291–97, 319, 320
acting career of, 288
assassination of Lincoln by, 286–92, 297
killing of, 289, 293
medical treatment of, 291–92
Boston, Mass., 20, 33, 83, 165, 175–76
Faneuil Hall in, 306
harbor of, 109
Tremont Temple in, 109–10, 179
Boston Daily Advertiser, 222, 246, 248
Boutwell, George, 320
Brace, Charles Loring, 341
Bradley, Alvin C., 113–14
Brady, James T., 161, 302
Brady, Mathew, 340
Brandywine, Battle of, 54
British Army:
in American Revolution, 20–30, 33–39, 42–43, 79–80, 203–4
burning of Washington by, 49–51, 100, 169
defections from, 68–69
Hessian mercenaries in, 20
Indian allies of, 14, 15, 16, 33–36, 38, 66, 66, 69, 89, 91, 122
retaliation by, 49–51
“ruffian system” of, 74
slash-and-burn tactics of, 38, 41
slaves freed and exploited by, 29–30, 34, 38, 49, 51, 72–77, 199, 206
treatment of prisoners by, 21–22, 29, 79–80
U.S. claims of atrocities by, 7, 15–16, 23, 26–28, 31, 37, 39, 40–41, 50–51, 80
see also War of 1812
Brodhead, Daniel, 38
Brown, John, 189, 200, 221, 275
Brown, Joseph, 287
Browning, Orville, 198–99, 204, 212n, 237–38, 297
Brownsville, Tex., 152, 154
Brown University, 265
Brown v. United States, 70–71
Brussels, 3, 343, 349
Brussels Declaration of 1874, 344
Buchanan, James, 150, 198, 201, 263–64, 309
Buffalo, N.Y., 67, 115
Buffalo Morning Express, 142
Buffington-Crozier disappearing gun carriage, 350
Buford, Napoleon Bonaparte, 241
Bullitt, Cuthbert, 238
Bull Run, First Battle of, 163, 165, 181, 201, 205, 209, 214, 254, 276
Bull Run, Second Battle of, 330
Bureau of Military Justice, U.S., 270
Burke, Edmund, 44
Burlamaqui, Jean-Jacques, 28, 70
Burnett, Henry, 291, 309
Burnside, Ambrose, 271–73
Lincoln’s dismissal of, 2
Burr, Aaron, 65
Bush, George W., 112n
war on terror pursued by, 5
Bush Doctrine, 112n
Butler, Benjamin, 202–3, 207, 217, 227, 244, 259, 289–90, 298, 310–11, 315
Bybee, Jay, 112n
Bynkershoek, Cornelius van, 28, 53, 82
Cadwalader, George, 202, 230
Cairnes, John Elliot, 225–26
Calabria, 127, 286
Calhoun, James M., 251–52, 279
Calhoun, John, 86, 98, 226
California, 89, 197, 275, 328, 332
Calvo, John P., 157–58, 161–62
Calvo, Mary, 157
Cambridge, Mass., 51
Cameron, Simon, 263
Campbell, John A., 273–74, 287
Canada, 14, 20, 33, 43
Confederate agents in, 287, 292, 295, 319–20
independence movement in, 111–13, 115
U.S. border with, 116, 137, 366
in War of 1812, 67, 69, 122
Canadian militia, 112, 113
Canadian Parliament, 67
Canby, Edward, 329
Canning, George, 63
Carey, Matthew, 176
Caribbean Sea, 88, 165
Carleton, Guy, 1st Baron Dorchester, 33, 204, 208
Caroline, 111–13, 114, 116–17, 178
Carthage, 124
Castlereagh, Lord, 77
Cebu, 356
Cervantes, Miguel de, 363
Chambersburg, Pa., 274, 303, 322
Chandler, Zacharia, 314
Charleston, S.C., 39, 147, 161, 201, 223, 259, 276–77
harbor of, 80, 157, 159, 263, 275
Charleston Mercury, 159
Charlottesville, Va., 28
Chase, Salmon, 154–55, 168, 214, 216, 238, 272, 312–13, 321–22
Chattanooga, Tenn., 250
Cherokee Indians, 35, 38
Chesapeake, USS, 62–65, 82
Chesapeake Bay, 42–43, 50, 67, 72, 73, 208
Chestnut, Mary Boykin, 201
Cheyenne Indians, 89, 336
Chicago, Ill., 213, 215
Child, Lydia Maria, 218
China, U.S. treaty with, 47
Chinese language, 83
Chipman, Norton Parker, 299
Chippewa, Canada, 112
chivalry, 18, 109, 123–24, 127, 322
Chivington, John, 336–37
Choate, Rufus, 177
cholera, 80
Christian Commission, U.S., 278
Christian Intelligencer, 205
Christianity, 16, 92, 93, 113, 119, 134, 177, 211
view of neutrality in, 52
Christ the Spirit (Hitchcock), 254
Cicero, 363
cities:
evacuation of, 20, 251–52
plunder and destruction of, 17, 20, 22, 39, 41, 49–51, 67, 91, 191,
250–52, 274, 276–77, 281
civilians, 41
deaths of, 121, 122
destroyed property of, 4, 40
protection of, 2, 18, 20, 26, 29, 94, 139
return to besieged cities forced upon, 4
starvation of, 4, 42
Civil War, U.S., 32, 86, 108
battles of, 1–2, 163, 165, 170–73, 171, 181, 186, 187, 193, 196, 209, 230, 232, 255–56, 280, 302
as deadliest in U.S. history, 1
first shots of, 142, 179
guerrilla warfare in, 189–91, 189, 242
mass destruction in, 3, 189
prison camps in, 260–61, 263, 267, 278, 287, 298–301, 303, k, 322
Sherman’s March to the Sea in, 6, 252, 274, 276–83, 302, 357
slavery issue in, 78, 137, 196, 240–44
see also Confederate Army; Union Army
Clarendon, Lord, 135, 136
Clark, George Rogers, 34, 35–36, 92, 107, 332
Clausewitz, Carl von, 4, 184–86, 188, 194–95, 196, 236, 278, 328
Clay, Clement, 287, 308
Clay, Henry, 76, 100–106, 368
Clay, Henry, Jr., 119
Cleveland, Grover, 335
Clinton, DeWitt, 265
Clinton, Henry, 29, 31, 42
Coacoochee (Seminole), 107–8
Cobb, Howell, 277
Cobb, Thomas, 100–101, 199
Cobbett, William, 63, 65
Cobden, Richard, 136
Cochrane, Alexander, 74, 75–76
Cockburn, George, 73
Colby, Elbridge, 129
Collier, George, 24
Colonial Marines Corps, 49–51, 74
Columbia, S.C., 176–77, 179–80, 278, 280
Columbia College, 21, 180, 181–83, 236, 241, 264–65, 318
Law School of, 351–52
Columbia Daily, 142
Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 332n
Comanche Indians, 336
Commentaries on American Law (Kent), 71, 83, 85, 87, 93
Commentaries on the Laws of England (Blackstone), 30, 83
Commercen, 58
Confederate Army, 143, 154, 187, 202
Army of Northern Virginia in, 208–9, 215, 255, 285
casualties in, 1, 163
desertions in, 285
guerrilla units in, 189–92, 189, 195–96, 198, 242, 257, 268, 275, 282, 293, 297, 332, 340
Hampton’s Legion in, 180, 278
Lincoln’s Code delivered to, 2, 248–49
postwar amnesty of, 285–87, 288
surrender of, 285–87
uniforms of, 171
Western Department of, 170–73
Confederate Congress, 190, 216, 223–24, 247, 273–74
Confederate Constitution, 273
Confederate States Navy, 154, 308
Confederate States of America, 273–74
cabinet of, 287
Canadian agents of, 287, 292, 295, 319–20
cotton trade in, 143–44, 152, 279
as criminal conspiracy, 138, 142–43, 143, 146