Empire of Cotton
Page 79
85. Gandhi, The Indian Cotton Textile Industry, 71, 123. For the connections to mill owners see Makrand Mehta, “Gandhi and Ahmedabad, 1915–20,” Economic and Political Weekly 40 (January 22–28, 2005): 296. A. P. Kannangara, “Indian Millowners and Indian Nationalism before 1914,” Past and Present 40, no. 1 (July 1968): 164; Visvesvaraya, Planned Economy for India (Bangalore: Bangalore Press, 1934), v, 203; Ding, “Shanghai Capitalists Before the 1911 Revolution,” 33–82; on India see also Bipan Chandra, The Writings of Bipan Chandra: The Making of Modern India rom Marx to Gandhi (Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan, 2012), 385–441.
86. Bagchi, Private Investment in India, 5, 240, 241.
87. “The Cooperation of Japanese and Korean Capitalists,” as cited in Eckert, Offspring of Empire, 48; Mehta, The Ahmedabad Cotton Textile Industry, 121; Report of the Bombay Millowners’ Association for the Year 1908 (Bombay: Times of India Steam Press, 1909), vi; Ratanji Tata to G. K. Gokhale, Bombay, October 15, 1909, in Servants of India Society Papers, File 4, correspondence, Gokhale, 1890–1911, Part 2, Nehru Memorial Library, New Delhi; File No. 24, Sir Purshotamdas Thakurdas Papers, Nehru Memorial Library; Dietmar Rothermund, The Global Impact of the Great Depression, 1929–1939 (London: Routledge, 1996), 96; A Brief Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic Development for India, 1944, as reprinted in Purshotamdas Thakurdas, ed., A Brief Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic Development for India, 2 vols. (London: Penguin, 1945).
88. See Joel Beinin, “Formation of the Egyptian Working Class,” Middle East Research and Information Project Reports 94 (February 1981): 14–23; Beinin, “Egyptian Textile Workers,” 188–89.
89. Fong, “Cotton Industry and Trade in China,” 379, 381; Hung-Ting Ku, “Urban Mass Movement: The May Thirtieth Movement in Shanghai,” Modern Asian Studies 13, no. 2 (1979): 197–216.
90. Morris, The Emergence of an Industrial Labor Force in India, 105, 178, 183; R. L. N. Vijayanagar, Bombay Millowners’ Association, Centenary Souvenir, 1875–1975 (Bombay: The Association, 1979), 63, in Asiatic Society of Mumbai; Mehta, The Ahmedabad Cotton Textile Industry, 113; Makrand Mehta, “Gandhi and Ahmedabad, 1915–20,” Economic and Political Weekly 40 (January 22–28, 2005): 298; Vijayanagar, Centenary Souvenir, 1875–1975, 29; Roy, “The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India,” 269.
91. Jacob Eyferth, “Women’s Work and the Politics of Homespun in Socialist China, 1949–1980,” International Review of Social History 57, no. 3 (2012): 13; Prabhat Patnaik, “Industrial Development in India Since Independence,” Social Scientist 7, no. 11 (June 1979): 7; Paritosh Banerjee, “Productivity Trends and Factor Compensation in Cotton Textile Industry in India: A Rejoinder,” Indian Journal of Industrial Relations 4 (April 1969): 542; Government of India, Ministry of Labour, Industrial Committee on Cotton Textiles, First Session, Summary of Proceedings, New Delhi, January 1948; Lars K. Christensen, “Institutions in Textile Production: Guilds and Trade Unions,” in Van Voss et al., eds., The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 766; Hansen and Nashashibi, Foreign Trade Regimes and Economic Development, 7, 19–20.
92. Eyferth, “Women’s Work and the Politics of Homespun,” 21.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: THE WEAVE AND THE WEFT: AN EPILOGUE
1. “Liverpool. By Order of the Liverpool Cotton Association Ltd., Catalogue of the Valuable Club Furnishings etc. to be Sold by Auction by Marsh Lyons & Co., Tuesday, 17th December 1963,” Greater Manchester County Record Office, Manchester.
2. Douglas A. Farnie and Takeshi Abe, “Japan, Lancashire and the Asian Market for Cotton Manufactures, 1890–1990,” in Douglas Farnie et al., eds., Region and Strategy in Britain and Japan, Business in Lancashire and Kansai, 1890–1990 (London: Routledge, 2000), 151–52; John Singleton, “Lancashire’s Last Stand: Declining Employment in the British Cotton Industry, 1950–1970,” Economic History Review, New Series, 39, no. 1 (February 1986): 92, 96–97; William Lazonick, “Industrial Organization and Technological Change: The Decline of the British Cotton Industry,” Business History Review 57, no. 2 (Summer 1983): 219. It was ironically also in the 1960s that British historians began to deemphasize the importance of the cotton industry to the Industrial Revolution.
3. John Baffes, “The ‘Cotton Problem,’ ” World Bank Research Observer 20, no. 1 (April 1, 2005): 116.
4. For India, see Official Indian Textile Statistics 2011–12, Ministry of Textiles, Government of India, Mumbai, accessed on June 5, 2013, http://www.txcindia.com/html/comp%20table%20pdf%202011–12/compsection1%2011–12.htm. For Pakistan see Muhammad Shahzad Iqbal et al., “Development of Textile Industrial Clusters in Pakistan,” Asian Social Science 6, no. 11 (2010): 132, Table 4.2, “Share of Textiles in Employment.” On China see Robert P. Antoshak, “Inefficiency and Atrophy in China’s Spinning Sector Provide Opportunities of Others,” Cotton: Review of World Situation 66 (November–December 2012), 14–17.
5. National Cotton Council of America, “The Economic Outlook for U.S. Cotton, 2013,” accessed September 17, 2013, http://www.cotton.org/econ/reports/upload/13annmtg_all_final.pdf. See also United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, “Cotton: World Markets and Trade,” Circular Series, April 2013; Oxfam, “Cultivating Poverty: The Impact of US Cotton Subsidies on Africa, 2002,” accessed March 15. 2012, http://www.oxfamamerica.org/files/cultivating-poverty.pdf. On world cotton area see International Cotton Advisory Committee, Cotton: Review of World Situation 66 (November–December 2012), 5; International Cotton Advisory Committee, “Survey of Cotton Labor Cost Components in Major Producing Countries” (April 2012), foreword. The estimate of 350 million is from Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, April 1, 2010. For the general points see Naoko Otobe, “Global Economic Crisis, Gender and Employment: The Impact and Policy Response,” ILO Employment Working Paper No. 74, 2011, 8; Clive James, “Global Review of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 2001, Feature: Bt Cotton,” International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications no. 26 (2002), 59. David Orden et al., “The Impact of Global Cotton and Wheat Prices on Rural Poverty in Pakistan,” Pakistan Development Review 45, no. 4 (December 2006): 602; John Baffes, “The ‘Cotton Problem,’ ” World Bank Research Observer 20, no. 1 (April 1, 2005): 109.
6. Sabrina Tavernise, “Old Farming Habits Leave Uzbekistan a Legacy of Salt,” New York Times, June 15, 2008; “Ministry Blames Bt Cotton for Farmer Suicides,” Hindustan Times, March 26, 2012; David L. Stern, “In Tajikistan, Debt-Ridden Farmers Say They Are the Pawns,” New York Times, October 15, 2008; Vivekananda Nemana, “In India, GM Crops Come at a High Price,” New York Times, India Ink Blog, October 16, 2012, accessed April 2, 2013, http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/16/in-india-gm-crops-come-at-a-high-price/?_r=0.
7. Amy A. Quark, “Transnational Governance as Contested Institution-Building: China, Merchants, and Contract Rules in the Cotton Trade,” Politics and Society 39, no. 1 (March 2011): 3–39.
8. Nelson Lichtenstein, “The Return of Merchant Capitalism,” International Labor and Working-Class History 81 (2012): 8–27, 198.
9. New York Times, April 1, 1946; International Cotton Association, History Timeline, accessed April 15, 2013, http://www.ica-ltd.org/about-us/our-history.
10. John T. Cumbler, Working-Class Community in Industrial America: Work, Leisure, and Struggle in Two Industrial Cities, 1880–1930 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979), 139.
11. Kang Chao, The Development of Cotton Textile Production in China (Cambridge, MA: East Asian Research Center, Harvard University, 1977), 269.
12. Ibid., 267; Alexander Eckstein, Communist China’s Economic Growth and Foreign Trade: Implications for U.S. Policy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), 56.
13. See “China’s Leading Cotton Producer to Reduce Cotton-Growing Farmland,” China View (December 25, 2008), accessed September 10, 2013, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008–12/25/content_10559478.htm; National Cotton Council of America, Country Statistics, accessed December 15, 2012, http://www.cotton.org/econ/cropinfo/cropdata/coun
try-statistics.cfm; Zhores A. Medvedev, Soviet Agriculture (New York: Norton, 1987), 229ff.; Charles S. Maier, “Consigning the Twentieth Century to History: Alternative Narratives for the Modern Era,” American Historical Review 105, no. 3 (June 1, 2000): 807–831; Carol S. Leonard, Agrarian Reform in Russia: The Road from Serfdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 75.
14. See Maier, “Consigning,” 807–31.
15. Oxfam, “Cultivating Poverty: The Impact of US Cotton Subsidies on Africa, 2002”; New York Times, August 5, 2003, A18, September 13, 2003, A26. Over the past decade, U.S. government cotton subsidies have ranged from around $1 billion to over $4 billion a year. John Baffes, “Cotton Subsidies, the WTO, and the ‘Cotton Problem,’ ” World Bank Development Prospects Group & Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, Policy Research Working Paper 566 (May 2011), 18; Michael Grunwald, “Why the U.S. Is Also Giving Brazilians Farm Subsidies,” Time, April 9, 2010; Realizing Rights: The Ethical Globalization Initiative, “US and EU Cotton Production and Export Policies and Their Impact on West and Central Africa: Coming to Grips with International Human Rights Obligations” (May 2004), 2, accessed January 20, 2013, http://www.policyinnovations.org/ideas/policy_library/data/01155/_res/id=sa_File1/.
16. See Akmad Hoji Khoresmiy, “Impact of the Cotton Sector on Soil Degradation” (presentation, Cotton Sector in Central Asia Conference, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, November 3–4, 2005); International Crisis Group, Joint Letter to Secretary Clinton regarding Uzbekistan, Washington, DC, September 27, 2011, accessed January 20, 2013, http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/media-releases/2011/asia/joint-letter-to-secretary-clinton-regarding-uzbekistan.aspx; International Crisis Group, “The Curse of Cotton: Central Asia’s Destructive Monoculture,” Asia Report No. 93, February 28, 2005, accessed January 20, 2013, http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/central-asia/093-the-curse-of-cotton-central-asias-destructive-monoculture.aspx.
17. See David Harvey, The Geopolitics of Capitalism (New York: Macmillan, 1985).
18. See Xi Jin, “Where’s the Way Out for China’s Textile Industry?” Cotton: Review of World Situation 66 (November–December 2012): 10.
19. See Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914–1991 (New York: Vintage, 1994); for a similar argument see Aditya Mukherjee, “What Human and Social Sciences for the 21st Century: Some Perspectives from the South” (presentation at Nation Congress on “What Human and Social Sciences for the 21st Century?” at the University of Caen, France, on December 7, 2012).
20. See Environmental Farm Subsidy Database, 2013, accessed September 25, 2013, http://farm.ewg.org/progdetail.php?fips=00000&progcode=cotton.
21. On Chinese households in the 1950s see Jacob Eyferth, “Women’s Work and the Politics of Homespun in Socialist China, 1949–1980,” International Review of Social History 57, no. 3 (2012): 2. On current household expenditures see United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Expenditures 2012, released September 10, 2013, accessed September 17, 2013, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/cesan.pdf; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, November 13, 2009, 25.
Index
Numbers in italics refer to illustrations.
Aachen
Abdulhamid I, Sultan
abolitionism, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, 9.1, 11.1, 12.1, 12.2
Adams, Charles Francis, 9.1, 9.2
Adams, Henry
Addington, Henry
Adelaide Advertiser
Adidas
Advisory Committee of Science and Industry
Affleck, Thomas, 5.1
Africa, itr.1, itr.2, itr.3, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 5.1, 11.1, 12.1
Central
East, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 12.1
Gold Coast of, 2.1, 4.1, 12.1
North, 1.1, 1.2, 6.1
savannas of
West, itr.1, itr.2, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 4.1, 5.1, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4
see also specific countries
African Americans, 12.1, 12.2
citizenship of
collective action of, 10.1, 13.1
cotton-growing labor of, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 12.1, 13.1
discrimination and violence against, 10.1, 10.2
disenfranchising of
female, 10.1, 10.2
lynching of
in Reconstruction, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5
sharecropping of, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 13.1
see also slaves
agrarian reform
Agricultural Adjustment Administration
Agricultural Yearbook
agriculture, itr.1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 6.1
commercialization of
earnings derived from, 11.1, 11.2
premodern
“scientific,”
subsistence, itr.1, 1.1, 1.2, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, 12.1
tools of, itr.1, 12.1
see also plantations
Agriculture Department, U.S., 10.1, 11.1
Foreign Agricultural Service of
Ahmedabad, 6.1, 8.1, 11.1, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6
Akbar, Mogul Emperor
Akpanya von Boem, 12.1
Alabama, itr.1, 5.1, 5.2, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3
Alair, James P.
Alamkonda
Albers
Aleppo
Alexander Sprunt and Son
Alexandria, 5.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 11.1
port of, 8.1, 10.1
Alexandria Anglo-Egyptian Spinning and Weaving Company
Algeria, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 12.1, 12.2
Algérie et la crise cotonnière, L’ (Herzog)
Allahabad
Alsace, itr.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 7.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 13.1, 13.2
al-Shaqi, Ahmed
Alves Branco tariff of 1844
Amalgamated Spinners Association
American Cotton Planter, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
American Revolution
Ananse
Anatolia, see Turkey
Anderson, Clayton & Co.
Anderson, Frank
Anderson, Monroe
Andhra Pradesh
Anglo-Dutch wars
Anglo-Ottoman Tariff Treaty (1838)
animal husbandry
anticolonialism, 13.1, 13.2
Antuñano, Esteban de, 6.1, 6.2, 13.1
Antwerp
Arabia, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1
Arabian Desert
Arabs, 1.1, 2.1
“Arab socialism,”
Aral Sea
Arasaratnam, Sinnappah
Argentina, 6.1, 11.1, 12.1, 12.2, 13.1
Arizona, 12.1, 14.1
Arkansas, 5.1, 5.2, 12.1
Arkwright, Richard, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 4.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2
Armenia
Armitage, Elkanah
Armitage, Enoch
Armitage, Wright, 6.1, 6.2
Arnould, George
Arthur, Chester A.
Ashton, Thomas
Ashuelot
Ashworth, Edmund
Ashworth, Henry, itr.1, 8.1, 9.1, 10.1
Asia, itr.1, itr.2, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 5.1, 6.1, 14.1
Central, itr.1, 1.1, 10.1, 10.2, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4
East
South, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
Southeast, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
see also specific countries
Asiatic Journal, 5.1, 6.1, 8.1, 10.1, 11.1
Associação Industrial
Association Cotonnière Coloniale, 12.1, 12.2
Association for the Cultivation of Cotton in Korea
Aswan Dam
Asyut Dam
Atkinson, Edward, itr.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.1, 10.2, 12.1, 13.1
Atlanta International Cotton Exposition of 1881
Atlantic Ocean, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1, 8.2, nts.1
Augsburg, 1.1, 1.2, 7.1
Ausland
Australia
cotton production in
Queensland
Austria
Azerbaijan, 12.1
Aztecs, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 2.1, 2.2
Baden, 6.1, 6.2
Badge family, 7.1, 7.2
Baghdad, 1.1, 1.2
Bahamas, 4.1, 5.1
Bahia
Bahian Commercial Association
Baines, Edward, itr.1, itr.2, 1.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 8.1
Baltimore, Md.
Bamako
Banco de Avío para Fomento de la Industria Nacional
Bangladesh, 1.1, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3
banias, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
banjaras
Bank Misr
Bank of England, itr.1, 8.1
Baptist, Edward
Baranda, Don Pedro, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5
Barbados, 4.1, 8.1
Barcelona, itr.1, 1.1, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 13.1
Baring, Francis, 2.1, 8.1, 8.2
Baring, Thomas, 5.1, 5.2, 8.1, 8.2
Baring Brothers & Company, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1
Baring family, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 11.1, 14.1, 14.2
Barlow, Francis C.
Barnes, Elias
Barr, Alexander
Barr, Robert
Basel
Basra
“Baumwollkulturkampf,”
Bauwens, Lieven, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4
Bazley, Thomas
Beatles
Beaulieu, Georges de
Bebel, August
Begochiddy
Belfast
Belgian Congo, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4
Belgium, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1
colonial territories of, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4
Bengal, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 5.1, 9.1, 11.1
Benin, 14.1, 14.2
Benjamin, Walter
Bennet, Andrew
Berlin
Bernhard, Karl Friedrich
Beverly Cotton Manufactory
Bhagubhai, Jamnabhai
Bhagubhai, Masukhbhai
Bhakra Dam
Bibb, Henry