God's Chinese Son

by Jonathan Spence

  42. Ibid., 152, 154, 158, 166 n. 55, 176 n. 80, 161, 163-64. However, Clarke's attempt to include Feng Yunshan among the Hong Kong converts to the Chinese Union (the Han- hui) is firmly rebutted by Mao, "Guanyu Guo Shili," 269, 271. For more details on the Chinese Union see Schlyter, Gutzlaff als Missionar, chap. 6, and 266-99.

  43. P. Clarke, "Coming," 149, 179-80.

  44. Variants of these formats can be seen in the New York Public Library, the British Library, and the Library of Congress. The base of Gutzlaff s European support is studied in Schlyter, Heimatbasis, chap. 4, for the growth period of the 1840s.

  45. Romans 1:14-15. Twenty-six numbered Chinese Union tracts are listed with titles and summaries in Robert Douglas' 1877 Catalogue of the British Museum, 3-5, 37. The serial numbers cited there range from Tract 10, the lowest, to Tract 52. In the same chapter, Paul gives his own list of prohibitions that far exceeds in comprehensiveness either the six prohibitions of Hong Xiuquan or the Ten Commandments handed to Moses by God at Sinai. Though, like Hong's, Paul's list (Romans 1:26-31) includes murder, lust, and disobedience to parents, it adds almost twenty further sins, including envy, whispering and backbiting, pride and malignity, and the practice of male homosexuality.

  46. TR, 35-36; Legge, Li-Ki.

  47. TR, 36, Wilhelm/Baynes, I Ching, 56-57, hexagram tongren Taiping zhaoshu, in Yinshu, 10.

  48. TR, 34, modified following Taiping zhaoshu, in Yinshu, 8.

  49. TR, 36, slightly modified following Taiping zhaoshu, in Yinshu, 10.

  50. TR, 38.

  51. TR, 38-39, 44. On the Yuliji see Taiping zhaoshu, in Yinshu, 12.

  52. See TR, 39, 41, 46-47.

  53. See detailed accounts in Coughlin, "Strangers," and Pruden, "Roberts."

  54. A full description of such a baptism is given by Roberts in two letters to Gutzlaff of July 21 and July 29, 1844. See "Chun's Doings in Canton," #19 (July 21, 1844) 3, plate 1927, fiche 17; and #20 (July 29, 1844) 1 and 2, plates 1917 and 1918, fiche 17. My thanks to Laura McDaniel for furnishing me transcripts of "Chun's Doings."

  55. P. Clarke, "Coming," 171, on the assistant Zhou Daoxing and Gutzlaffs union con­nection; TR, 70; Hamberg, Visions, 31.

  56. Hamberg, Visions, 32; Coughlin, "Strangers," 256-61.

  57. Hamberg, Visions, 32; TR, 70-71; Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 28.

  58. Canton Register, Sept. 1, 1835. See also Shilu, Daoguang, 269/3b.

  59. Laai, "Pirates," 36, 66-67.

  60. Ibid., 113, 144.

  61. Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 28b; TR, 71. For earlier esoteric use of cryptic utterances and finger codes see Zurcher, "Prince Moonlight," 37.

  62. Hamberg, Visions, 33.

  63. Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 30b; TR, 72. The characters jiusui, translated as "accord­ing to the old calendar" in TR, 72, must surely in fact mean "the previous year"; other­wise the chronology makes no sense. Guo Tingyi, Shishi, 47, amends the text in this sense.

  64. TR, 72, modified; Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 30b—31; compare the use of "Wu" in the opening line of the poem ibid., 20b.

  65. Dates in Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 30b, 31; TR, 72; Hamberg, Visions, 34.

  Chapter 8: Judgments

  1. Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 31, for "their writings are distributed" (xieshu songren), even though the nature of these shu, or "writings," is not specified; the translation in TR, 72, "wrote letters to be sent to people," seems somewhat too limited. See also Wang, Tianfu, 159, 191, and Bohr, "Eschatology," 136-76, for their work at this time.

  2. Liang, Quanshi, 359 (7/17); TR, 41, modified; Taiping zhaoshu, in Yinshu, 14. Hong here combines Exodus 20:4-5 and 31:18.

  3. Psalms 115:1-8; TR, 43; and Taiping zhaoshu, in Yinshu, 16. Hong uses this fuller passage of Psalms 115:1-8, rather than the briefer list in Psalms 135:16-17.

  4. TR, 45, retranslated from Taiping zhaoshu, in Yinshu, 17b.

  5. TR, 57, modified after Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 10, and abbreviating repetitions of God's full name.

  6. TR, 61; Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 15b.

  7. TR, 62, modified; Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 16.

  8. Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 27, 31b; TR, 69-70, 73; Guo Yisheng, Ditu, 21.

  9. Hamberg, Visions, 36; TR, 73; Weller, Resistance, 57-58, on shrine numbers and repu­tation.

  10. Hamberg, Visions, 36; TR, 73; I interpret Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 31 b—32, as showing it was the worshipers, not "temple guardians," who took these preventive measures.

  11. Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 32; TR, 73.

  12. TR, 7i-76-, Taiping tianri, in Yinshu, 32—35b; Hamberg, Visions, 37; Hong Rengan variants in TR, 1518-19; Weller, Resistance, 62-63.

  13. Jen, Quanshi, 1:120-23; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 38-39; Li, Zhongxing bieji, 1:6.

  14. Li, Zhongxing bieji, 1:6a; Xia, Zongjiao, 33.

  15. Li, Zhongxing bieji.

  16. For the general Guangxi background, see Kuhn, "Taiping Rebellion," 264-66. See also Xia, Zongjiao, 29, on the Guiping area militias (tuanlian) and God-worshipers.

  17. Kikuchi, "Taihei tengoku," 7, for the Lan and Luo families in Jintian; Inada, "Taihei tengoku," 61-64, on "Hakka" as a term. My special thanks to Wen-wen Liu for help with these articles.

  18. Kikuchi, "Taihei tengoku," 4, on the Xus, originally from Tongcheng, Anhui, and their long reign as Guiping magistrates.

  19. Ibid., 7, on the "Yaoming huiguan."

  20. Ibid., 8.

  21. Ibid., 9-11.

  22. Ibid., 12-15, 16, on the Anliang yue.

  23. Ibid., 17; Anliang yue, 347-48.

  24. Kikuchi, "Taihei tengoku," 19-20, on the Huang family, which was not related to Hong's friends, the Sigu village Huangs.

  25. Ibid., 24, 26-27.

  26. Inada, "Taihei tengoku," 71.

  27. Ibid., 74; Anliang yue, 345.

  28. Inada, "Taihei tengoku," 76-77, citing Anliang yue.

  29. Ibid., 78-79, on gongbao registry.

  30. This is especially significant for Wei Changhui—later the Taiping "North King"— and his father's and uncle's landholdings, as discussed ibid., 75; see ibid., 82, for the Wei family's token payment of 4 qian to the local shrine. On p. 78 Inada argues that "perhaps" Wei's Hakka identity was a factor here.

  31. See Laai, "Pirates," 167 n. 36, 168 n. 37.

  32. Li, Zhongxing bieji, 1:6b; Wang, Tianfu, 192; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 38-40; Naquin, Millenarian Rebellion, and Kuhn, Soulstealers, both offer vivid examples of such treatment of suspects under investigation.

  33. Wang, Tianfu, 192; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 40.

  34. As analyzed in Weller, Resistance, 70-75.

  35. Xia, Zongjiao, 30-31; Hamberg, Visions, 34, cites Xiao's wife, Yang Yunjiao, as also having visions. See also TR, 69, on Hong Rengan; for Xiao's hour-long trances see Tianxi- ong shengzhi, l:4b-5. Bohr, "Eschatology," 177, argues that during this period of Hong's and Feng's.absence from Guangxi, Yang and Xiao, by their "shamanic leadership," were "unleashing the revolutionary implications" of Hong's theology.

  36. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:1, 2, 8; Wang, Tianfu, 4, 9.

  37. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:9; Wang, Tianfu, 10.

  38. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:6; Wang, Tianfu, 7-8; Weller, Resistance, 82-83, suggests this as a prototype for women's power and possession.

  39. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:7-8, 9b; Wang, Tianfu, 8-11; Zhong Wendian on Hakka idi­oms, interview with author in Guilin, summer 1992; Xia, Zongjiao, 34, discusses the impor­tance of this consanguinity in local religious terms.

  40. Weller, Resistance, discusses this rich mix at length—see esp. p. 56, on the Jintian area as "thick with extraordinary possibilities," and p. 84, on the final "saturation." For these examples see Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:3, 10, 12; Wang, Tianfu, 5, 11, 13. The two accounts of the same incident in the text have a variant reading, Siwang and Shiwang, for the name of the village. For its location, see Guo Yisheng, Ditu, 24.

  41. Hamberg, Visions, 45.

  42. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:2b, 5, first description by Jes
us, second by Xiao Chaogui.

  43. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:3b; Wang, Tianfu, 5.

  44. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:5b, "shouzhi ... yu wo {an," "pointed out with His hand, for me to see."

  45. Genesis 32:24; Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:5b, "gangshou chiao." That the phrase refers to a Hakka wrestling grip was explained to me by Zhong Wendian in 1992.

  46. Kutcher, "Death and Mourning"; Kuhn, Soulstealers, 58-59, 102-3. The "three years" of mourning was usually interpreted as twenty-seven months.

  47. Hamberg, Vision, 40; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 40. Wang, Tianfu, 192. Hong's son was born in Daoguang 29/10/9 (Nov. 23, 1849), a little more than nine months after Hong's return to Guanlubu.

  Chapter 9: Assembling

  1. Guo Yisheng, Ditu, 23, 25, 27.

  2. Many are listed in Guo Tingyi, Shishi, 65-70.

  3. Graham, China Station, chap. 9; Hay, Suppression, 27-44; Laai, "Pirates," 66-72; Guo Tingyi, Shishi, 68-69.

  4. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:16b.

  5. Ibid., 1:17; Wang, Tianfu, 17.

  6. Hamberg, Visions, 46.

  7. Ibid., 46-47; Weller, Resistance.

  8. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:21, for Daoguang 29/10/23; Wang, Tianfu, 22, which accidentally omits the leaders' uneasy reply.

  9. The two are Huang Weizheng and Ji Nengshan. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:18b, Daoguang 29/9/11; this is clearly earlier than the early part of 1850 suggested for these events by Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 54.

  10. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:19a, dated 29/9/14.

  11. Ibid., 1:20b, dated 29/9/28, where God is called "Gao Lao" for the first time in this text. For the term "Gao Lao" see Luo Ergang, "Jingji kao" 28; TR, 99.

  12. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:20b, dated 29/10/4, and 1:35a, 30/1/4; Hamberg, Visions, 51. Bohr, "Eschatology," 194-96, on militia and Taiping organizations.

  13. Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 42-44; TR, 378-79; Curwen, Desposition, 80-81.

  14. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:33b, Daoguang 30/1/4 (Feb. 15, 1850); Wang, Tianfu, 33-34.

  15. Hamberg, Visions, 42.

  16. Retranslated from the Chinese ibid., 43.

  17. Tianxiong shengzhi, l:41b-42, dated 30/2/23.

  18. Hamberg, Visions, 43.

  19. Ibid., 55—56, modernizing romanization of Chinese names.

  20. Ibid., 50, Chinese text, modifying his translation and that in TR, 77.

  21. The key passages are in Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:28b—31b, Daoguang 29/12/27 and 29/ 12/29; Hong's leg injury is mentioned ibid., 1:21b, under Daoguang 29/10/23; Wang, Tianfu, 29-31.

  22. Tianxiong shengzhi, 2:20b-21, Daoguang 30/8/13; Guo Tingyi, Shishi, 84, has other details on Shi Dakai's involvement at Baisha.

  23. Tianxiong shengzhi, l:31b-32b, Daoguang 30/1/2.

  24. Ibid., 1:34a, Daoguang 30/1/4, and 1:36-37, Daoguang 30/1/16; Wang, Tianfu, 36 n, explains the codes. There was a similar ceremony on 30/1/17.

  25. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:38b, Daoguang 30/1/17.

  26. Ibid., 1:41b, Daoguang 30/2/23.

  27. Ibid., 1:42-44b, for initiation, 1:46b, for baptism, Daoguang 30/2/27 and 28; Wang, Tianfu, 41-43, 45.

  28. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:25b, Daoguang 29/12/1; Wang, Tianfu, 27; Hamberg, Visions, 34, however, suggests it was Xiao's first wife, Yang-yun-kiau, who was the women's model.

  29. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:26.

  30. Ibid., 1:20b, Daoguang 29/10/4, describes the woman as being guai dai, "kidnapped" or "decoyed."

  31. Ibid., 1:26b, where Jesus calls her his baomei. On the true identity of Xiao's wife, nee Huang, who later used the name of Yang, see Luo Ergang, "Chongkao," 134, 136.

  32. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:26b. This "second sister Chen" was possibly older sister to "third sister Chen," prominent among Hong's court women in 1860, as shown in TR, 931.

  33. TR, 390, translation of Tiancjing daolishu, in Yinshu, 29b.

  34. Hamberg, Visions, 45, says Hong Rengan sent the message. Hong's son was born in Daoguang 29/10/9. Jen, Ouanshi, 1:128.

  35. The three were Huang Shengjue, Hou Changbo, and Jiang Longchang. See Jen,

  Quanshi, 1:191; Hamberg, Visions, 47, 53; TR, 811, on "Hou Ch'ang-po and Huang Sheng- chueh," probably also refers to their role on this trip. See also Wang, Tianfu, 81 and n. 1, on Hou Changbo; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 352-53, on Jiang Longchang's death in 1852.

  36. Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 55; Jen, Quanshi, 1:192.

  37. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:24b, Daoguang 29/11/27.

  38. Hamberg, Visions, 47-48.

  39. TR, 374; Hamberg, Visions, 46; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 56.

  40. TR, 374-75, modified from Tianqing daolishu, in Yinshu, lib; Wang Qingcheng, in Tianfu, 195 n. 1, explains why he believes Yang had recovered by Sept., as opposed to the Nov. date given in Tianqing daolishu.

  41. On the ulcers (chuangdu) see Tianxiong shengzhi, 2:13b, Daoguang 30/8/1; Wang, Tianfu, 66.

  42. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:46b-47, Daoguang 30/3/4.

  43. Ibid., 1:47b, Daoguang 30/4/22.

  44. Ibid., 2:8, Daoguang 30/7/26.

  45. Ibid., 1:52b, Daoguang 30/6/20; Wang, Tianfu, 50; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 43- 44, for Chen and Qin.

  46. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:54b—55.

  47. Ibid., 1:53.

  48. Ibid., 1:53b—54.

  49. Ibid., 1:54.

  50. The logistics, quarrels, and final success can be reconstructed from several messages in Tianxiong shengzhi, 2:l-3b, those dated Daoguang 30/7/5, 30/7/16, 30/7/18, 30/7/19, and 30/7/21; Wang, Tianfu, 55-57.

  Chapter 10: Earth War

  1. Tianxiong shengzhi, 1:48, Daoguang 30/6/19 (27 July 1850); Jiang, "Dengji," suggests April 3, 1850, as Hong's throne day.

  2. Zhuang, "Ling Shiba," 102, gives a full list.

  3. Tianxiong shengzhi, 2:25, Daoguang 30/9/10.

  4. Ibid., 2:26b, Daoguang 30/9/25; Wang, Tianfu, 77; Wang, "Jintian qiyi," 72-88, fully analyzes the uprising as a process throughout 1850.

  5. Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 49, and Zhuang, "Ling Shiba," 101.

  6. TR, 133, Taiping junmu, in Yinshu, 1-2.

  7. TR, 137-38, Taiping junmu, in Yinshu, 32; TR, 419-20.

  8. See Shih, Taiping Ideology, 259-64, for a meticulous analysis; and Biot, trans., Le Tcheou-li, vol. 2, bk. 28.

  9. E.g., Tianxiong shengzhi, 2:23, Daoguang 30/8/20, for "face" in the context of Yang's illness.

  10. See ibid., 2:1 lb—12, Daoguang 30/7/29, literally "Those two men don't recognize much of characters written in ink" and "accomplish things by natural talent." See also the mockery of geographical and astronomical scholarship ibid., 2:18b, Daoguang 30/8/9, and of classical poetry in 2:33b, Taiping 1/3/18.

  i 1. Ibid., 2:22, where Yang Liu is given a hundred blows on Daoguang 30/8/19 although he had apparently already reached the eighth commandment without an error.

  TR, 123, modified following Tian tiaoshu, in Yinshu, 11 b—12.

  Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 58-60; Hamberg, Visions, 48-49; Guo Tingyi, Shishi,

  92.

  Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 67-68; Laai, "Pirates," 95, 199-204; Jen, Quanshi, 1:214-20, valiantly tries to unravel all the overlapping and contradictory accounts of these conflicts.

  Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 62-63; Jen, Quanshi, 1:218-19, on Zhang Yong; Wang, "Jintian qiyi," 64-71, dismisses much prior discussion of this battle as unreliable.

  Tianxiong shengzhi, 2:27, Daoguang 30/11/first ten days of month.

  Guo Yisheng, Ditu, 33-34.

  TR, 425.

  TR, 425-26.

  The Chinese date of the battle was Daoguang 30/11/29. Guo Yisheng, Ditu, 33-34; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 64-65; Jen, Quanshi, 1:221-23; Guo Tingyi, Shishi, 97. Jen somewhat garbles Ikedanbu's name.

  Tianming zhaozhi shu, in Yinshu, 6, modifying TR, 103; Guo Tingyi, Shishi, 98. Kuhn, "Taiping Rebellion," 273-74, sees Hong's Jan. 11, 1851, birthday as marking the time "a political regime had at last emerged from Hung's messianic vision."

  Laai, "Pirates," 204-5; Jen, Revolutionary Movement, 68; Hamberg, Visions, 55
-56; Guo Tingyi, Shishi, 98, 100.