War Horse
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Arms remained essentially unchanged from the end of the seventeenth century although, as in the previous period, there were variations based on regiment, specific year, nationality, and type of cavalry organization. The basic equipment was a straight sword, two flintlock pistols in pommel-mounted holsters, and sometimes a carbine slung over the shoulder. Dragoons all carried either a carbine or a shortened dragoon musket. Dragoons wore a carbine belt over the left shoulder with a clip that attached to a ring on the weapon allowing them to carry the weapon easily off their right hip while mounted. Another belt over the opposite shoulder supported a cartridge box for the carbine.
Types of Cavalry
Through the eighteenth century, varieties of cavalry, though functioning under numerous national titles, divided into four functional groups: heavy cavalry, horse, dragoons, and light cavalry. Various countries may have eliminated or combined one or more of these functional groups. For example, the British service combined heavy cavalry, horse, and dragoon functions into one standard cavalry type, though different traditional unit designations remained to confuse the issue. The Austrians and Prussians organized only heavy cavalry (cuirassiers), dragoons, and light cavalry (hussars). The French organization included all four groups. In addition, the mounted forces of most nations included the household cavalry of the various monarchs as a fifth group. These elite units were usually equipped as either heavy cavalry or horse, but riders were often physically larger, always better paid, and had higher quality equipment and mounts than the cavalry of the regular army.
The Regiment
A critical aspect of cavalry organizations which predates the eighteenth century but became fully developed during that period was the regiment. In the eighteenth century, the regiment became the basic standard military organization in all nations, replacing the smaller company, which had been the basic organization. A colonel commanded the regiment and was responsible for its training, equipping, and performance in combat. He was of noble birth, either was appointed to his position by the monarch or purchased it, and ran the regiment as a business within the guidance of the army regulations and his chain of command. The professional qualities of colonels varied widely from country to country. Some were absolute professional soldiers while others were absentee property owners, and the regiment’s lieutenant colonel actually ran the day-to-day activities of the regiment. The colonel of the regiment could also be absent because he was promoted to general officer or higher rank, in which case he often did not give up his colonelcy.
All cavalry, regardless of nation or type, followed a similar organizational structure. The regiment was the largest permanent organization. Colonels assisted by a lieutenant colonel, and sometimes a major, commanded regiments. Regiments were made up of companies. The numbers and size of companies in the regiment varied widely. Typically, a regiment might have 6 to 12 companies. Captains, assisted by lieutenants, a quartermaster, and sergeants and corporals, commanded companies. Regiments on a war footing might number approximately a thousand men. Company size varied typically between 40 and 70 troopers. Each company had one or two trumpeters who were the primary means of conveying orders, particularly in battle. A nonpermanent organization that saw great service in combat was the squadron. The squadron was an ad hoc unit organized to meet the requirements of a particular battle or campaign. It could consist of two to four companies commanded by the senior company commander, or a major or lieutenant colonel of the regiment. The differences between squadrons and companies became blurred as individual nations diverged in using the term. In the British service the term squadron was used instead of company.32
Heavy Cavalry and Horse
The heavy cavalry differed from the regular army horse in their armor and in some cases the size of their mounts. The heavy cavalry were the preferred unit for the decisive charge in battle. They were usually better paid and were more senior in terms of the history of the regiment, therefore less likely to deactivate in peacetime. The cuirass was the distinguishing equipment of heavy cavalry. In the armies that had them, the regular horse regiments were the mainstay of the cavalry forces but were subject to frequent deactivation when peace prevailed. Because of this, many of the more junior regular cavalry regiments were not up to the training standard of the heavy cavalry or the most senior of the horse regiments. Both heavy and regular cavalry carried a straight sword and a brace of pistols. An indication of the increasing versatility of all cavalry over the course of the eighteenth century was that in the Austrian service, by the middle of the century, all horsemen, including cuirassiers, carried carbines.33
Dragoons
Dragoons, though technically mounted infantry, by the eighteenth century had evolved into general purpose cavalry suited to a variety of duties and capable of functioning across the spectrum of cavalry requirements from charging as heavy cavalry to scouting as light cavalry. The status of dragoons varied considerably from army to army. In the Russian service dragoons made up the bulk of the mounted force—25 of 30 regiments in 1711. The Russian dragoons as well as the French dragoons were the equal of, or superior to, the line cavalry in prestige. In British service the opposite was true. Dragoons, officers and troopers, received less pay than cavalry. Although total numbers were constantly changing, in French service the number of cavalry and the number of dragoons were approximately equal. In British service between 1707 and 1714 there were 11 cavalry against 18 dragoon regiments, although in British service there was little difference between the two types of units and their employment. In most armies, a dragoon regiment was slightly larger than a regiment of horse. A Russian dragoon regiment in 1712 numbered 1,328 men while at the same time a cavalry regiment counted 1,100 men.34
Light Cavalry
Light cavalry became an even more important part of the cavalry arm in the eighteenth century. They continued to specialize in independent operations away from the main body. Missions such as raids, reconnaissance, rear and advance guard, and foraging were most common. In the Russian service hussars of the regular army shared these special light cavalry missions with Cossack auxiliaries. In the British service light dragoon regiments performed the role of light cavalry.
By the time of the Seven Years’ War, reform of the Prussian cavalry had produced quality hussars who could hold their own even with the Austrian–Hungarian regiments, who were the premier light cavalry in the first half of the eighteenth century. Prussian hussars also benefited by their greater integration into the main army, which permitted them to work effectively with horse artillery and other types of cavalry in the main battle. The Prussian light horse, though not the battle-winning arm that the cuirassiers were, were recognized as the place where future senior leaders learned independence, audacity, and good judgment.
Eighteenth-Century Cavalry Tactics and Training
Basic cavalry drill developed in the late seventeenth century remained unchanged throughout the eighteenth century. The four basic movements remained facing, doubling, countermarching, and wheeling. The emphasis on linear formations remained the standard. The test of the cavalry commander was his skill using the basic movements in the correct combination and the correct time and place, in order to put his unit in the most advantageous position to execute the attack.
At the end of the seventeenth century, the French cavalry were the best trained and commanded cavalry in Europe. However, this changed quickly in the eighteenth century. By the end of the century the French cavalry were possibly the worst in the Europe. The French reliance on pistol fire, and charging at the trot in three ranks became increasingly ineffective as the century progressed. Their horsemanship also got worse: at any pace above the trot they lost all coherence in their formation and turned into a mob. They were notoriously ill disciplined, and this caused their poor performance at the battle of Dettingen in 1743. Tactical failure was not uncommon: French cavalry charges at Fontenoy (1745) were stopped before they could reach the British lines, and at Minden (1759) advancing British infantry drove back
French cavalry.35
British cavalry were aggressive, but they too charged at the trot. Unlike the French, the British cavalry preferred the saber as their primary weapon. Marlborough issued his cavalry only three rounds of pistol ammunition to be used for personal protection on foraging expeditions. He developed the tactic of maintaining a large cavalry reserve, and at Blenheim he employed his reserve at a critical point to win the battle. This tactic was copied by other generals and became common.36
Until 1742, Prussian cavalry were among the least effective in Europe. They were viewed as a show force of large men on large horses—unable to move with any speed. Following the battle of Mollwitz in 1741, Frederick the Great and Friedrich von Seydlitz set about remodeling the Prussian horse in order to create an effective shock weapon. By 1745, they had created a proficient force trained to charge at the full gallop knee to knee. Speed became the priority of the Prussian cavalry and leaders reduced equipment and arms to the bare minimum in order to increase speed. By the end of the Seven Years’ War, Prussian cavalry were capable of executing complex maneuvers across rough terrain at a full gallop. The ability of Prussian cavalry to close on an infantry formation at a full gallop negated much of the effectiveness of the bayonet. Much of the early success of the bayonet was based on cavalry closing at a trot. The slow-paced charge allowed sufficient time for the infantry to volley fire against the approaching cavalry, and melee with the mounted force. The speed and power of cavalry at the gallop against bayonet-equipped infantry physically and psychologically intimidated the best infantry and easily destroyed troops arrayed in a line formation.37
The Prussian cavalry were a major battle-winning arm of the Prussian army. The charge of the Bayreuth “Death’s Head” Dragoons won the battle of Hohenfriedburg in 1745, the cavalry played a large role at Lobositz in 1756, and Seydlitz’s two charges destroyed the combined French and German armies at Rossbach. The Prussian cavalry typically formed in battle with three types of cavalry grouped with cuirassiers forward and dragoons aligned behind the cuirassiers in support; hussars positioned themselves on the flanks of the other cavalry to guard against a surprise. The dragoons’ mission was to be flexible; and depending on how the charge of the cuirassiers went, they would move forward to support the charge or they were prepared to move to the flanks to support the hussars. The Prussian cuirassiers initially charged in three ranks with the purpose of the third rank to fill gaps that developed in the first. Experience indicated that at a gallop the middle rank was hard to maintain, and so the Prussian switched to a two-rank attack formation. Frederick the Great changed the practice of charging in small squadron-size formations to charging in massed regiments. This tactic had been avoided because of the vulnerability of large blocks of cavalry to artillery and musketry, but Frederick relied on speed, timing, and supporting firepower to permit his cavalry to close with the enemy. Supporting firepower was provided by new light artillery, called appropriately horse artillery, which was pulled by six or eight horses and was integral to all cavalry formations including the hussars. Horse artillery was trained to unlimber and go into action quickly to provide close support for attacking cavalry. Horse artillery was rapidly copied by all the armies of Europe.38
Basic cavalry operations as expressed in the eighteenth-century Prussian army were simple. Cavalry’s role in the battle was to first charge the opposing horse as described by Prussian General of Hussars Emanuel von Warnery: “[The] whole attack will be very much facilitated by the operation of the cavalry, engaging or defeating that of the enemy; should they succeed in obliging the enemy’s cavalry to retire, and leave the flank of their infantry uncovered, or, as it is called, in the air; the affair is completed by the attack of the infantry, assisted by a few squadron of the reserve, falling upon that unprotected wing, as it happened towards the conclusion of the battle of Prague, which was decided in our favor.”39
Warnery then provided a detailed description of the conduct of the charge itself:
At the first sound of the trumpet the whole begin to move forward, first and second line, and the reserve: The attacking wing perfectly dressed in line, marches on at a walk; at the second sound, which ought to be doubled, the whole begin to trot, (which the second line, and the reserve, continue to do till after the charge is finished), at the third sound, which is tripled, at about 150 or 200 paces from the enemy, the first lines begins to gallop, and when they approach with 70 or at most 80 yards of the enemy, the trumpets found gay and lively fanfares or flourishes of the trumpet, then the troopers prick with both spurs, and push forward at full speed, without however entirely slackening the bridle, as all the horses cannot gallop with equal velocity; but when within about 20 paces, they must force their gallop as much as possible, to give the full impulse of the charge, or as the king of Prussia used to call it, the grand coup de collier; the rear ranks must then also press forward with all their weight and speed, as if they would force forward their front ranks or file leaders; this is called furnishing the shock.
The troopers of the front raise their swords to the height of their faces, the arm extended in tierce, the point against the eyes of the his enemy, and the hand a little turned, that the branch of guard of the sword may cover his own; they must raise themselves a little in the stirrups, the body forward, and aim to place a thrust with the point against the man or the horse opposed to him; in a word, he must do his best, either by thrusting or cutting, to disable the enemy; thus the shock or charge is soon finished.
The charge being successful, and the enemy’s line broken, the word halt must be given, and the appel, or call, sounded.40
Warnery’s description, based on his extensive experience, represents the ideal envisioned by Frederick when he reformed the Prussian cavalry in the early 1740s. Warnery also emphasizes the control, particularly at the end of the charge, necessary to achieve mass at the point of attack and retain the cavalry for subsequent action immediately after the successful execution of the charge. In concept, this use of cavalry remained consistent with the employment of cavalry by Alexander the Great.
HORSES AND HORSEMANSHIP
During the early modern period systematic breeding programs for military horses emerged in Europe. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the most important of these programs were the royal horse breeds which capitalized on the reputation of the Spanish horses established in the Middle Ages. These breeds included the Friesian, Lusitano, and Lipizzaner. The most important of the “royal” breeds emerging in the sixteenth century was the Spanish Andalusian.
Spanish horses had been esteemed for their quality since Roman times. The introduction of Barb and Arabian influences after the Islamic invasion only improved the quality of the indigenous Spanish horse. In the Middle Ages, central Europeans used Spanish stallions as a means of improving the quality of their horses. The Andalusian breed emerged in the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries as the best representation of the Spanish horse. The purity of the Andalusian breed owes a great debt to the Carthusian monks of Spain who established studs and carefully managed the breeding program despite political instability and war.41
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century Andalusians were used to start other royal breeds. The Friesians of north Holland were a product of Andalusians bred with indigenous north European forest ponies. The Lipizzaner, the classic high school equitation horse of Austria, are descendants of Andalusians imported by the Austrian court in the late sixteenth century, inspiring the name of Vienna’s famous Spanish Riding School. The Lusitano breed of Portugal is very similar to the Andalusian, the primary difference being slightly less Arab and Barb influence. In conformation and size the two breeds are very similar. Careful examination of the illustrations of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century equitation manuals clearly show horses that resemble the modern royal breeds were the preferred horse for military use. The seventeenth century marked the shift from the Medieval preference for stallions to the calmer, more easily controlled geldings, though some stalli
ons were still found in the formations.42 It is likely that the increased requirement for ordered formations contributed to this change. By the eighteenth century, geldings had become the universally preferred military mount.
A very good representative of the best of the seventeenth-century cavalry mounts was Streiff, the mount of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. One of his German cavalry colonels, Johnann Streiff von Lauenstein, presented Streiff to the king in 1631. The colonel purchased the horse for 1,000 Imperial thalers. At the time the average cost of a good war horse was 100 thalers—Streiff was therefore a very expensive mount. Streiff was Adolphus’s mount when he was killed at the battle of Lützen in 1632. The horse returned on his own to the Swedish lines severely wounded. The army recovered the king’s tack and pistols from the horse who died of his wounds while being transported back to Sweden. Streiff ’s body was mounted and placed on display at the Swedish army museum. From his preserved remains, it is possible to get a very accurate picture of the seventeenth-century cavalry mount. Streiff was a heavily muscled bay (deep brown colored with black mane, tail, and lower legs) standing about 15.2 hands. He was a stallion with a small, refined head, thick neck, and well-developed chest and hindquarters. The horse had many of the characteristics of Spanish type royal horse.43
The growing scale and the almost continuous nature of warfare in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were conditions under which breeding horses specifically for military use became very profitable. Though the horse did not wear armor, the equipment of the rider still remained substantial. Pistols, cartridges, carbine, and the 30 or more pound cuirass of the heavy cavalry replaced the armor of the knight. In addition, unlike Medieval knights, the emerging cavalry regiments did not allow for additional horses or pack animals to help carry the trooper’s equipment. Thus, over-coats, blankets, food, and cookware added to the combat load of the war horse. This reinforced the requirement for large horses. The Spanish horses, traditionally the best military mounts in Europe, were not up to the size required of the heavy cavalry. However, larger horses were not a simple answer to the need because tactical requirements mandated that military mounts have the athleticism of the Spanish horses including the ability to train in the high school manner. Horsemen in Germany began to breed a horse specifically for these requirements. Three areas of Germany produced large but athletic horses ideal for military purposes: Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, and Westphalia.