Imperial Spain 1469-1716
Page 52
Wool, 33–4, 39, 57, 119–21, 137, 188, 366
duties on, 119, 231
Ximenes, see Cisneros, Francisco Jiménez de
Yuste, monastery of, 164, 210
Zafra, Hernando de, secretary of Isabella, 50, 91, 165
Zagal, El, King of Granada (1485–7), 48–9
Zamora, Bishop of, see Acuña, Antonio de
Zaragoza, 280–82
Zayas, Gabriel de, secretary of Philip II, 259, 264
Zumárraga, Fray Juan de (1475–1548), 1st Bishop of Mexico, 71
Zúñiga, Baltasar de (d. 1622), first minister of Philip IV, 324
Zúñiga, Juan de (1490?–1546), tutor to Philip II, 208
Zurbarán, Francisco de (1598–1664), painter, 367
Zurita, Jerónimo (1512–80), chronicler of Aragon, 141
1. Quoted by Richard Konetzke, El Imperio Español (Madrid, 1946), p. 81.
2. See Robert B. Tate, Joan Margarit i Pau, Cardinal-Bishop of Gerona (Manchester, 1955).
3. From which, however, she not infrequently emerged. She survived another fifty years, dying in Lisbon in 1530. She continued to sign herself throughout her life ‘I, the Queen’, and there were occasional threats by the kings of Portugal to revive her claims to the throne of Castile.
4. J. Vicens Vives, Els Trastàmares (Barcelona, 1956), p. 240.
5. Javier Ruiz Almansa, ‘La población española en el siglo XVI’, Revista International de Sociología III (1943), pp. 115–36. Ruiz Almansa's total figures for population, which are higher than most historians would be willing to accept, are based on the exceptionally high multiplier of 6.
6. This is the form of the oath given by Antonio Pérez in his Relaciones of 1598, and the Venetian ambassador Soranzo provides a comparable version in his report of 1565. There are, however, reasons for believing that the oath was a sixteenth-century invention, but it expresses well enough the spirit of the contractual relationship between the Aragonese and their rulers. See Ralph A. Giesey, If Not, Not (Princeton, 1968),
7. The first and most important of the ‘six evil customs’ was remença personal, by which the serf was obliged to purchase from his lord personal redemption from his status before he could leave his land. The other five customs allowed the lord to take a portion of the serf's goods in certain specified circumstances – as, for instance, when the serf died intestate. The six customs are described in detail in R. B. Merriman, The Rise of the Spanish Empire, vol. I (New York, 1918), p. 478.
1. Quoted by K. Garrad, The Causes of the Second Rebellion of the Alpujarras (unpublished Cambridge Ph.D dissertation, 1955), vol. I, p. 84.
2. Known to Englishmen as Ximenes, and to Spaniards as Cisneros, his full name was Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros.
3. Quoted by Irving A. Leonard, Books of the Brave (Harvard University Press, 1949), p. 43, a remarkable study of literary fashions in the age of the conquest.
4. Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España, c. cciv.
5. Quoted by Lewis Hanke, Bartolomé de las Casas (The Hague, 1951), p. 9.
6. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, op.cit.
7. Quoted by Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians (London, 1959), p. 15.
1. Quoted in J. Vicens Vives, Politica del Rey Católico en Catalonia (Barcelona, 1940), pp. 26–7.
2. Quoted by José Cepeda Adán, En Tomo al Concepto del Estado en los Reyes Católicos (Madrid, 1956), p. 119.
3. Quoted in José Antonio Maravall, ‘The Origins of the Modern State’, Cuadernos de Historia Mundial VI (1961), p. 798.
4. Lucio Marineo Sículo, Obra de las Cosas Memorables de España (Alcalá de Henares, 1533), fs. 23 v-24.
5. British Museum, Harleian MS. 3569 Curia Española (1615), fs. 185–204v. List of encomiendas.
6. Galíndez Carvajal, quoted in Maravall, ‘Origins of the Modern State’, op. cit., p. 807.
7. His salary was paid by the local community, and seems to have averaged between 400 and 600 ducats a year in the later sixteenth century.
8. For the methods of the Inquisition, see below, pp. 218–20.
9. Cosas Memorables de España, op. cit., fs. 24–25V.
10. Quoted by Julio Caro Baroja, Los Moriscos del Reino de Granada (Madrid, 1957), p. 7.
11. See the extremely informative introductory section to the Obras Completas de Santa Teresa de Jesús (Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos), vol. 1 (Madrid, 1951).
12. In 1534 a new gold coin of less fineness, the escudo, was introduced, and gradually replaced the ducat, although this continued to be used in reckoning. Where the ducat was worth 11 reales and 1 maravedí, the escudo was worth 350 maravedís, or 10 silver reales. It was raised to 400 maravedís in 1566, and to 440 in 1609.
13. Quoted by Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians, p. 8.
1. See Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (London, 1955), pp. 64–70 and 145–52.
2. Francesco Guicciardini, Legazione di Spagna (Pisa, 1825), pp. 61– 2(letter xvi, 17 September 1512). The word ‘conformità used by Guicciardini remains vague, but it would seem not unreasonable to assume that he was thinking of language as well as of habits and customs. Machiavelli is more explicit in the third chapter of The Prince, where he says that conquered states are easier to hold when they are of the same ‘language, customs, and laws’ as the country which conquers them. The ‘conformity’ of Navarre to Ferdinand's other kingdoms, while by no means complete, was certainly no less close than that of Brittany and Gasconyto France, which Machiavelli adduces as examples of his maxim. [While the southern part of Navarre went to Spain in 1512, the northern, French, part remained an independent state until the accession of Henry of Navarre to the French throne as Henry IV.]
3. Jorge Varacaldo to Diego López de Ayala, 27 September 1516, Cartas de los Secretarios del Cardenal… Jiménez de Cisneros…, ed. Vicente de la Fuente (Madrid, 1875), p. 29.
4. ‘Congratulations, double doublon, on not falling into Chièvres's hands.
5. The demands are printed in Prudencio de Sandoval, Vida y Hechos del Emperador Carlos V, vol. 1 (Pamplona, 1614), pp. 304–38.
6. Quoted by H. L. Seaver, The Great Revolt in Castile (London, n.d.), p. 303.
7. Quoted by M. Bataillon, Érasme et l'Espagne (Spanish translation, Erasmo España (Mexico, 1950), vol 1, p. 326).
1. Juan de Solórzano Pereira, Política Indiana (Madrid, 1647; reprinted Madrid, 1930), book iv, chap, xix, §37.
2. Milan reverted to Charles V as an Imperial fief on the death of its last Sforza duke in 1535. Charles conferred it on his son, Prince Philip, in 1540, and thereafter it remained attached to the Spanish Crown.
3. ‘por lo qual se considera estar VM en cada reyno’, Santiago Agustín Riol, ‘Informe que hizo a Su Magestad en 16 de junio 1726’, Semanario Erudito, vol. Ill (Madrid, 1787), p. 112.
4. The relevant passage is printed in full on pp. 91–96 of Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson, The School of Salamanca. Readings in Spanish Monetary Theory, 1544–1605 (Oxford, 1952).
5. Earl J. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (Harvard University Press, 1934), p. 301.
6. J. Nadal Oller, ‘La Revolución de los Precios Españoles en el Siglo XVI,’ Hispania, vol. XIX (1959), PP. 503–29.
7. José M. March, Niñez y Juventud de Felipe II, vol.I (Madrid, 1941), p. 182.
1. Quoted in Guenter Lewy, Constitutionalism and Statecraft during the Golden Age of Spain; a study of the political philosophy of Juan de Mariana, S.J. (Travaux d'Humanisme et Renaissance XXXVI, Geneva, 1960), p. 22.
2. Quoted by Albert A. Sicroff, Les Controverses des Statuts de ‘Pureté de Sang’ en Espagne du XVe au XVIIe Siècle (Paris, 1960), p. 138 n.
3. There was at this time no complete Spanish translation of the Scriptures in existence. Francisco de Enzinas, however, had published a translation of the New Testament from the Greek text of Erasmus in 1543 at Antwerp. In 1555 the Jewish press at Ferrara printed a Spanish version
of the Old Testament from the Hebrew; and Juan Pérez de Pineda, a refugee monk from the convent of San Isidoro at Seville, produced his own translation of the New Testament and the Psalms at Geneva in 1556 and 1557 respectively. The first complete translation of the Bible into Castilian was the work of Casiodoro de Reina, another refugee from the convent of San Isidoro, and appeared at Basle in 1569. Passages from the Scriptures were, of course, included in many books that circulated freely in Spain, and Spanish authors continued to quote extensively from the Bible. (See the pages by Professor E. M. Wilson on Spanish versions of the Bible in The Cambridge History of the Bible, ed. S. L. Greenslade, Cambridge, 1963), pp. 125–9.)
4. In writing this section I have drawn heavily on Dr Garrad's unpublished thesis on The Causes of the Second Rebellion of the Alpujarras, which he generously placed at my disposal.
1. Quoted from Philip II's instructions to the Viceroy of Naples (1558), by Charles Bratli, Philippe II, Roi d'Espagne (Paris, 1912), appendix VII, p.234.
2. Luis Cabrera de Córdoba, Filipe Segundo, Rey de España (ed. Madrid, 1876), vol. I, p. 298.
3. Cristòfol Despuig, Los Col•loquis de la insigne Ciutat de Tortosa, ed. Fidel Fita (Barcelona, 1877), p. 46. A series of imaginary dialogues by a Catalan gentleman, first published in 1557.
4. Quoted by M. Van Durme, El Cardenal Granvela (Spanish translation from the Flemish, Barcelona, 1957), p. 357.
5. Las Obras y Relaciones de Antonio Pérez (Geneva, 1631), pp. 205–6.
6. They are included in the edition by Diego Sevilla Andrés of Furió Ceriol's El Concejo y Consejeros del Principe (Valencia, 1952), pp. 177–85.
7. Quoted from Antonio Pérez by Leopold Ranke, The Ottoman and the Spanish Empires (London, 1843), p. 41 n.
8. M. Van Durme, El Cardenal Granvela, p. 366.
9. M. Philippson, Ein Ministerium unter Philipp II. Kardinal Granvelle am Spanischen Hofe (Berlin, 1895), p. 231, n. 2.
1. Pedro de Ribadeneyra, S. I., Historias de la Contrarreforma (Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, Madrid, 1945), pp. 1331 and 1333.
2. Letter of 17 August 1588 reproduced in the appendix to Henri Hauser, François de la Noue, 1531–1591 (Paris, 1892), pp. 315–19.
3. Lope de Deça, Govierno Polytico de Agricultura (Madrid, 1618), p. 23.
4. Lerma's principal reason for transferring the Court was probably to withdraw the King from the dangerous influence of his grandmother the Empress Maria, one of Lerma's most implacable foes. She had returned to Spain in 1576, after the death of her husband Maximilian II, to become a nun in the convent of the Descalzas Reales in Madrid.
5. Elkan N. Adler, ‘Documents sur les Marranes d'Espagne et de Portugal sous Philippe IV’, Revue des Études Juives, vol. 51 (1906), p. 120.
6. Don Quixote, part II, c. XX.
7. From Tratado espiritual de lo que pasa entre pobres y ricos, an unedited contemporary poem, kindly show n me by Professor E. M. Wilson.
8. Don Quixote, ibid.
9. Gil González Dávila, Historia de la Vida y Hechos del Ínclito Monarca… Don Felipe Tercero (ed. Madrid, 1771), p. 215.
10. Ibid., p. 45.
11. For Marineo Sículo, see above, p. 112. The relación of Núñez de Salcedo is printed in Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, vol. 73 (1918), pp. 470–91.
12. Don Quixote, part II, c. LXVI.
13. Quoted by Gerald Brenan, The Literature of the Spanish People (Cambridge, 1951), p. 270.
1. The exception to this is Sicily, where the failure of a revolt in 1675 allowed the Spaniards to abolish the Senate of Messina and to extend the royal power.
2. Marquis de Villars, Mémoires de la Cour d'Espagne de 1679 à 1681, ed. A. Morel-Fatio (Paris, 1893). See especially pp. 1–10.
3. Obras del Padre Juan de Mariana (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, vol. 31, Madrid, 1854), p. 601.
4. Figures taken from A. Astraín, Historia de la Compañía de Jesús, 7 vols. (Madrid, 1912–25), vol. III, p. 183, vol. IV, pp. 753–4 vol. VI, p. 30.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Foreword
Prologue
1 The Union of the Crowns
(1) Origins of the union.
(2) The two Crowns.
(3) The decline of the Crown of Aragon.
(4) Unequal partners.
2 Reconquest and Conquest
(1) The Reconquista completed.
(2) The advance into Africa.
(3) Medieval antecedents.
(4) Conquest.
(5) Settlement.
3 The Ordering of Spain
(1) The ‘new monarchy’.
(2) The assertion of royal authority in Castile.
(3) The Church and the Faith.
(4) The economic and social foundations of the New Spain.
(5) The open society.
4 The Imperial Destiny
(1) The foreign policy of Ferdinand.
(2) The Habsburg succession.
(3) Nationalism and revolt.
(4) The imperial destiny.
5 The Government and the Economy in the Reign of Charles V
(1) The theory and practice of empire.
(2) The organization of empire.
(3) The Castilian economy.
(4) The problems of imperial finance.
(5) The liquidation of Charles's imperialism.
6 Race and Religion
(1) The advance of heresy.
(2) The imposition of orthodoxy.
(3) The Spain of the Counter-Reformation.
(4) The crisis of the 1560s.
(5) The second rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–70).
(6) The Faith militant and the Faith triumphant.
7 ‘ One Monarch, One Empire, and One Sword
(I) King and Court.
(2) The faction struggles.
(3) The annexation of Portugal.
(4) The revolt of Aragon (1591–2).
8 Splendour and Misery
(1) The crisis of the 1590s.
(2) The failure of leadership.
(3) The pattern of society.
9 Revival and Disaster
(1) The reform programme.
(2) The strain of war.
(3) 1640.
(4) Defeat and survival
10 Epitaph on an Empire
(1) The centre and the periphery.
(2) The change of dynasty.
(3) The failure.
(4) The achievement.
Notes on Further Reading
Index
Iberian Expansion in the 16th and 17th Centuries
1. The Iberian Peninsula. Physical Features
2. Habsburg Spain
3. The Conquest of Granada
4. The Four Inheritances of Charles V
5. The Collapse of Spanish Power
1. The Union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon
2. The Spanish Habsburgs
3. The Conciliar System
4. Imports of Treasure
5. The Portuguese Succession