Pen and Ink Witchcraft

by Calloway, Colin G.

  6. Pekka Hämäläinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008); Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 35–54.

  7. Alfred Barnaby Thomas, ed., The Plains Indians and New Mexico: A Collection of Documents Illustrative of the History of the Eastern Frontier of New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), 137.

  8. Thomas, Plains Indians and New Mexico, 63–156, quote at 132.

  9. Thomas, Plains Indians and New Mexico, 148–54, quote at 151.

  10. Alfred Barnaby Thomas, trans. and ed., Forgotten Frontiers: A Study of the Spanish Indian Policy of Don Juan Bautista de Anza, Governor of New Mexico, 1777–1787 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932), 317.

  11. Barr, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman, 276–86.

  12. John R. Wunder, “‘That No Thorn Will Pierce Our Friendship’: The Ute-Comanche Treaty of 1786,” Western Historical Quarterly 42 (Spring 2011), 5–27; Thomas, Forgotten Frontiers, 294–321.

  13. Gary E. Moulton, ed., The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 28.

  14. Castle McLaughlin, Arts of Diplomacy: Lewis and Clark’s Indian Collection (Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum, Harvard University; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003), 206; Moulton, Lewis and Clark Journals, 52.

  15. Moulton, Lewis and Clark Journals, 47–52, 57.

  16. Moulton, Lewis and Clark Journals, 24, 28, 41, 50 (Brulé and Spanish flags), 65–66, 71 (quote), 72, 87, 176, 213, 241, 342, 368.

  17. A. P. Nasatir, ed., Before Lewis and Clark: Documents Illustrating the History of the Missouri, 1785–1804, 2 vols. (1952; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 1: 305; John C. Ewers, “Symbols of Chiefly Authority in Spanish Louisiana,” in The Spanish in the Mississippi Valley, 1762–1804, ed. John Francis McDermott (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974), 279.

  18. McLaughlin, “The Language of Pipes,” in Arts of Diplomacy, 201–49; Moulton, Lewis and Clark Journals, 176.

  19. Moulton, Lewis and Clark Journals, 202.

  20. Tracy Potter, Sheheke, Mandan Indian Diplomat: The Story of White Coyote, Thomas Jefferson, and Lewis and Clark (Helena, Mont.: Farcountry Press; Washburn, N.D.: Fort Mandan Press, 2003).

  21. Herman J. Viola, Diplomats in Buckskins: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981).

  22. IALT, 95–99; Jay H. Buckley, William Clark, Indian Diplomat (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008), 75–78 (“hardest treaty” quote at 77).

  23. IALT, 250–55; Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark, “Marked by Fire: Anishinaabe Articulations of Nationhood in Treaty Making with the United States and Canada,” American Indian Quarterly 36 (Spring 2012), 130–33.

  24. IALT, 225–46, 256–62.

  25. Landon Y. Jones, William Clark and the Shaping of the West (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004), ch. 10; William E. Unrau, The Rise and Fall of Indian Country, 1825–1855 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), ch. 5; Buckley, William Clark, Indian Diplomat, 112–13 (quote).

  26. Report submitted to Senate by Secretary of War, February 9, 1829, Senate Document 72: 20–22, serial 181, pp. 17–19, quoted in Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 211.

  27. Katherine M. Weist, “An Ethnohistorical Analysis of Crow Political Alliances,” Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 7–4 (1977), 34–54; Colin G. Calloway, “The Only Way Open to Us: Intertribal Warfare and the Crow Struggle for Survival,” North Dakota History 53 (Summer 1986), 24–34.

  28. George Bird Grinnell, The Fighting Cheyennes (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956), 63–69; Joseph Jablow, The Cheyenne in Plains Indian Trade Relations, 1795–1840 (1950; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 72–77; Joyce M. Szabo, Howling Wolf and the History of Ledger Art (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994), 133.

  29. Hämäläinen, Comanche Empire, 357–59; Brian DeLay, War of a Thousand Deserts: Indian Raids and the U.S.-Mexican War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008).

  30. Gary Clayton Anderson, The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820–1875 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005), ch. 11.

  31. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).

  32. Prucha, American Indian Treaties, 236.

  33. Unrau, Rise and Fall of Indian Country, ch. 9; Robert A. Trennert, Jr., Alternative to Extinction: Federal Indian Policy and the Beginnings of the Reservation System, 1846–1851 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1975).

  34. Clifford E. Trafzer and Joel R. Hyer, eds., Exterminate Them! Written Accounts of the Murder, Rape, and Enslavement of Native Americans during the California Gold Rush (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1999), 139.

  35. George E. Anderson, W. H. Ellison, and Robert F. Heizer, Treaty Making and Treaty Rejection by the Federal Government in California, 1850–1852 (Socorro, N.M.: Ballena Press, 1978), i (executive session), 27 (Fillmore quote); Robert F. Heizer, The Eighteen Unratified Treaties of 1851–1852 between the California Indians and the United States Government (Berkeley: Archaeological Research Facility, University of California, 1972), 5 (“farce”); Chad L. Hoopes, Domesticate or Exterminate: California Indian Treaties Unratified and Made Secret in 1852 (n.p.: Redwood Coast, 1975).

  36. John D. Unrau, Jr., The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–60 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979), ch. 5.

  37. James Mooney, Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1898; reprinted with an introduction by John C. Ewers, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), 290.

  38. IALT, 588–93.

  39. Patricia Albers and Jeanne Kay, “Sharing the Land: A Study in American Indian Territoriality,” in A Cultural Geography of North American Indians, ed. Tyrel G. Moore and Thomas E. Ross (Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1987), 47–91; Raymond J. DeMallie, “Touching the Pen: Plains Indian Treaty Councils in Ethnohistorical Perspective,” in Ethnicity on the Great Plains, ed. Frederick C. Luebke (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980), 38–53; VanDevelder, Savages and Scoundrels, ch. 5 (Crow arrival at 186); IALT, 594–96.

  40. Jeffrey Ostler, The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 38.

  41. Stan Hoig, The Western Odyssey of John Simpson Smith, Frontiersman and Indian Interpreter (1974; Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 85–87.

  42. Kingsley M. Bray, “Lone Horn’s Peace: A New View of Sioux-Crow Relations, 1851–1858,” Nebraska History 66 (Spring 1985), 28–47, quote at 41.

  43. VanDevelder, Savages and Scoundrels, 192, 217–18.

  44. Unrau, Rise and Fall of Indian Country, 141.

  45. Hoig, Western Odyssey of John Simpson Smith, 127–36; Viola, Diplomats in Buckskins, 99–102.

  46. Stan Hoig, The Sand Creek Massacre (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), ch. 9; Hoig, Western Odyssey of John Simpson Smith, ch. 9; George E. Hyde, Life of George Bent, Written from his Letters, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 155, 248. The most complete compilations of materials relating to the massacre are in the official investigations: “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians,” 38th Congress, 2nd session, Sen. Report 142, pt. 3; “Sand Creek Massacre,” 39th Cong., 2d session, Senate Executive Document 26, and “Chivington Massacre,” 39th Congress, 2nd session, Senate Report, 156.

  47. IALT, 603–7, 655–60, 714–19, 740–42.

  48. IALT, 661–77, 682–85, 719–25, 736–39; Prucha, American Indian Treaties, 250–55, Stevens quote at 251; Boxberger, “California, Hawaii, and the Pacific Northwest,” 225–28; Richard Kluger, The Bitter Waters
of Medicine Creek: A Tragic Clash between White and Native America (New York: Knopf, 2011). For the broader significance of the Stevens treaties, see Kent Richards, guest ed., “The Isaac I. Stevens and Joel Palmer Treaties, 1855–2005,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 106 (Fall 2005), 342–491; and Alexandra Harmon, ed., The Power of Promises: Rethinking Indian Treaties in the Pacific Northwest (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008).

  49. Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), ch. 8; Col. Lawrence Kip, The Indian Council at Walla Walla, May and June, 1855: A Journal. Sources of the History of Oregon, vol. 1, part 2 (Contributions of the Department of Economics and History, 1897), 10–11 (arrival), 13 (prayers).

  50. Kip, Indian Council at Walla Walla, 15–16.

  51. Kip, Indian Council at Walla Walla, 19–24 (quotes at 24).

  52. Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 332 (“most satisfactory”); McKay quoted in Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, The Cayuse Indians (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972), 203; David L. Nicandri, Northwest Chiefs: Gustav Sohon’s Views of the 1855 Stevens Treaty Councils (Tacoma: Washington State Historical Society, 1986), 13–17. The Walla Walla treaties are in IALT, 694–706.

  53. Robert Ignatius Burns, S.J., The Jesuits and the Indian Wars of the Northwest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966), 101.

  54. William E. Farr, “‘When We Were First Paid’: The Blackfoot Treaty, the Western Tribes, and the Creation of the Common Hunting Ground, 1855,” Great Plains Quarterly 21 (Spring 2001), 131–55; IALT, 736–40; Nicandri, Northwest Chiefs, 19–26.

  55. U.S. Statutes at Large, 12: 489; Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 17–19, 23–25.

  56. Elliott West, The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), xix–xxii; Elliott West, The Essential West: Collected Essays (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), 6 (quote); Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 1st session, 670.

  57. Letter of the Secretary of the Interior, July 13, 1867, 40th Congress, 1st session, Senate Executive Document 13: 5–6.

  Chapter 6

  1. “Proceedings of the Indian Peace Commission,” St. Louis, August 7, 1867, LROIA, Upper Platte Agency, 1867, roll 892.

  2. Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 1st session, 667–73, 678–79, 707–9; “Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission,” January 7, 1868, in Message from the President of the United States, transmitting report of the Indian peace commissioners. January 14, 1868.—Referred to the Committee on Indian Affairs and ordered to be printed, 40th Congress, 2nd session, House Executive Document 97: 1–2; Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 279–80; Douglas C. Jones, The Treaty of Medicine Lodge: The Story of the Great Treaty Council as Told by Eyewitnesses (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966), vii–viii, 1; Jill St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy in the United States and Canada, 1867–1877 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 20, ch. 7.

  3. George E. Hyde, Life of George Bent, Written from His Letters, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 177, 244.

  4. Stan Hoig, White Man’s Paper Trail: Grand Councils and Treaty Making on the Central Plains (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2006), 125–29; IALT, 887–95. The proceedings of the treaty are in Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties with various tribes of Indians, 10 reels, National Archives Microfilm T494; reel 7, ratified treaty no. 341.

  5. William T. Hagan, United States–Comanche Relations: The Reservation Years (New Haven: Yale University Press 1976), 8.

  6. Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 1st session, 670; IALT, 889 (special request).

  7. Charles Bogy and W. R. Irwin to Louis Bogy, December 1866, p. 6, in Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties with various tribes of Indians, reel 7.

  8. Hoig, White Man’s Paper Trail, 130–32.

  9. Bogy and Irwin to Bogy, December 1866, Documents relating to the negotiation of ratified and unratified treaties, p. 13.

  10. William Y. Chalfant, Hancock’s War: Conflict on the Southern Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010); ARCIA for 1867: 18, 310–14; “Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission,” 12; Proceedings of the Great Peace Commission of 1867–1868, with an introduction by Vine Deloria, Jr., and Raymond DeMallie (Washington D.C.: Institute for the Development of Indian Law, 1975), 21–22. The original proceedings are in RG 48, 665.

  11. St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy, 47.

  12. “Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission,” 1–2, 7, 9; Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 1st session, 667–70; ARCIA, 1868: 26, 32, 35.

  13. New York Times, September 22, 1867, September 29, 1867.

  14. Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 1st session, 670, 679, 706; “Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission,” 18.

  15. Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 1st session, 668, 706, 712; St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy, 48–49 (quotations).

  16. Jones, Treaty of Medicine Lodge, 18–19, 99; Henry M. Stanley, “A British Journalist Reports the Medicine Lodge Peace Councils of 1867,” Kansas Historical Quarterly 33 (Autumn 1967), 253–54. (The above contains Stanley’s complete letters from Kansas to the Missouri Democrat; those reprinted in Stanley’s My Early Travels and Adventures in America and Asia were incomplete and abridged.) New York Times, October 26, 1867, 8; Stanley, My Early Travels and Adventures in America and Asia, 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1895), 1: 115–16 (on Augur); Joseph M. Marshall III, The Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn: A Lakota History (New York: Penguin, 2007), 117 (Harney’s Lakota name); George Rollie Adams, General William S. Harney, Prince of Dragoons (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), xv–xvi.

  17. John W. Bailey, Pacifying the Plains: General Alfred Terry and the Decline of the Sioux, 1866–1890 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1979); Nathaniel Philbrick, The Last Stand: Custer, Sitting Bull, and the Battle of the Little Bighorn (New York: Viking, 2010), 101.

  18. Peter Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to the Indian Wars, Vol. 2: Conquering the Southern Plains (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 2003), 664; Stanley, Early Travels and Adventures, 1: v–xiv; Tim Jeal, Stanley: The Impossible Life of Africa’s Greatest Explorer (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), chs. 1–4. Jeal points out several discrepancies in Stanley’s account of his early life. He also ignores his role at Medicine Lodge.

  19. Jones, Treaty of Medicine Lodge, 25, ch. 3, and 210–19; Stanley, “A British Journalist Reports,” 249, 255; Stanley, Early Travels and Adventures.

  20. “Proceedings of the Indian Peace Commission,” St. Louis, August 6–7, 1867, LROIA, Upper Platte Agency, 1867, roll 892, doc. 1–379 plus enclosure; RG 48, 665, 1: 1–4.

  21. “Telegram to Superintendent Murphy,” August 7, 1867, LROIA, Upper Platte Agency, 1867; Jones, Treaty of Medicine Lodge, 74–77; Chicago Tribune, September 26, 1867; New York Times, October 5, 1867, 5; New York Times, October 7, 1867, 1, 8; Hyde, Life of George Bent, 282.

  22. William C. Meadows, Kiowa, Apache, and Comanche Military Societies: Enduring Veterans, 1800 to the Present (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999), 40–41.

  23. Charles M. Robinson, III, Satanta: The Life and Death of a War Chief (Austin: State House Press, 1997), 12; Theodore R. Davis, “A Summer on the Plains,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 36 (February 1868), 292–307, reprinted in Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, 2: 36, 39; Richard Taylor Jacob, Jr., “Military Reminiscences of Captain Richard T. Jacob,” Chronicles of Oklahoma 2 (March 1924), 28 (quote).

  24. Colonel W. S. Nye, Carbine and Lance: The Story of Old Fort Sill (1937; revised ed., Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974), 35; James Mooney, Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians (Washington, D.C.: Government P
rinting Office, 1898; reprinted with an introduction by John C. Ewers, Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), 314; “Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission,” 11; Davis. “A Summer on the Plains,” in Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, 2: 39.

  25. Stanley, “A British Journalist Reports,” 258; Stanley, Early Travels and Adventures, 1: 223.

  26. Statement of F. F. Jones, February 9, 1867, LROIA, reel 375.

  27. Robinson, Satanta, 62–63, 208n.12.

  28. Robinson, Satanta, 63.

  29. Arthur H. Mattingly, “The Great Peace Commission of 1867,” Journal of the West 15 (1976), 29; New York Times, October 26, 1867, 8 (“special”); New York Daily Tribune, October 23, 1867; Stanley, “A British Journalist Reports,” 260. Other reports said there were two Gatling guns but Edward Godfrey, who was detailed to command them, said there were four. Edward S. Godfrey, “The Medicine Lodge Treaty, Sixty Years Ago,” in Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, 2: 69.