82 Ibid., 145-6.
83 Bullock, Bevin, 25.
84 Weiler, Bevin, 147-8.
85 Ibid., 148-9.
86 Bullock, Bevin, 25.
87 Truman, Memoirs, I, 327.
88 Zhukov, Reminiscences, II, 451.
89 Truman in Hoeftmann and Noack, eds, Potsdam, 251.
90 Grisebach, Tagebuch, 70.
91 Truman, Memoirs, I, 329-30.
92 Kaps, Tragödie, 69.
93 Truman, Memoirs, I, 329-30.
94 Ibid., 331.
95 Bullock, Bevin, 28; Truman, Memoirs, I, 335.
96 Truman, Memoirs, I, 341.
97 Davies and Moorhouse, Microcosm, 414-15.
98 Zhukov, Reminiscences, II, 448.
99 Ibid., 414-16.
100 Truman, Memoirs, I, 337.
101 Ibid., 338.
102 Ibid., 339-40.
103 Zhukov, Reminiscences, II, 416-17.
104 Young, France, 62.
105 Ibid., 62, 64.
106 Davidson, Death and Life, 60.
107 Morgan, Byrnes, Clay, 73.
108 Kennan, Memoirs, 258-9.
109 Ibid., 263-6.
110 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 92, 103.
111 Grisebach, Tagebuch, 54.
CHAPTER 19: THE GREAT FREEZE
1 Mastny, Cold War, 23.
2 Ibid., 4, 6.
3 Young, France, 70-1.
4 Ibid., 74.
5 Buffet, Berlin, 360; Ritchie, Faust’s Metropolis, 638.
6 Morgan, Byrnes, Clay, 207.
7 Weiler, Bevin, 153-4.
8 Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 133.
9 Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, vol. II: 1946 - 1953, Years of Trial and Hope, London 1955, 100.
10 Kennan, Memoirs, 257.
11 Clare, Berlin Days, 193.
12 Weiler, Bevin, 154.
13 Kennan, Memoirs, 258.
14 Bullock, Bevin, 9, 11.
15 Naimark, Russians in Germany, 48.
16 Weiler, Bevin, 154.
17 Kennan, Memoirs, 253-4.
18 Keeling, Gruesome Harvest, vii-viii.
19 Ibid., 5, 8.
20 Siegfried Beer, ‘Die Besatzungsmacht Grossbritannien und Österreich 1945-1949’, in Ableitner et al., Österreich unter alliierter Besatzung, 47.
21 Byrnes, Speaking Frankly, 111-12, 118.
22 Graml, Teilung Deutschlands, 165, 182.
23 Ibid., 48-50; David Dilks, ed., The Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogan O.M., 1938-45, London 1971, 778.
24 Foschepoth, ‘Potsdam’, 76, 79.
25 Bullock, Bevin, 268; Smith, ed., Clay Papers, I, 255.
26 Ibid., 257.
27 Weiler, Bevin, 159-60.
28 Bullock, Bevin, 309.
29 Morgan, Byrnes, Clay, 319; Byrnes, Speaking Frankly, 190-1.
30 Morgan, Byrnes, Clay, 319.
31 Ibid., 334-5, 338; Weiler, Bevin, 160-2.
32 Byrnes, Speaking Frankly, 192; Gulgowski, ‘American Military Government’, 10.
33 Keeling, Gruesome Harvest, 10.
34 Dos Passos, Tour of Duty, 321-2.
35 Graml, Teilung Deutschlands, 105-7, 109.
36 Rathkolb, ‘Historische Fragmente’, 146.
37 Alfons Gruber, Geschichte Südtirols - Streifzüge durch das 20. Jahrhundert, Bolzano 2002, 103.
38 Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 90.
39 Rathkolb, ed., Gesellschaft und Politik, 192.
40 Ibid., 406.
41 Schärf, Wiederaufrichtung, 121.
42 Béthouart, Bataille, 109.
43 Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 90.
44 Ibid., 107.
45 Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, New Haven and London 1997, 421-2.
46 Buffet, Berlin, 366-7.
47 Naimark, Russians in Germany, 90.
48 Speer, Diaries, 62.
49 Staritz, DDR, 18.
50 Davidson, Death and Life, 129.
51 Brigadier-General Frank Howley, Berlin Command, New York 1950, 10.
52 Ibid., 136.
53 Sayn-Wittgenstein, Streifzüge, 174.
54 Zuckmayer, Deutschlandbericht, 83-4.
55 Anonymous, A Woman in Berlin, 50, 100.
56 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 105; Christabel Bielenberg, The Past is Myself, London 1985, 285.
57 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 151-2.
58 Zuckmayer, Deutschlandbericht, 86.
59 Speer, Diaries, 29-31.
60 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 158-9, 161.
61 Speer, Diaries, 34.
62 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 166.
63 Mastny, Cold War, 25. On Soviet Russia’s long-term plans, see Wolfgang Mueller, ‘Stalin and Austria: New Evidence on Soviet Policy in a Secondary Theatre of the Cold War, 1938-1953 ⁄ 1955’, Cold War History, vol. 6, no. 1, February 2006, 63-84.
64 Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 113.
65 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 170-1.
66 Ibid., 172-3.
67 Ibid., 174-6.
68 Zuckmayer, Deutschlandbericht, 87.
69 Bethouart, Bataille, 87.
70 Obituary, Josefine Hawelka, The Times, Saturday 26 March 2005.
71 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, I, 213, 226, 230.
72 Ibid., 248.
73 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 182.
74 Byrnes, Speaking Frankly, 198.
75 Clark, Calculated Risk, 439-42.
76 Mastny, Cold War, 26-9.
77 Ibid., 40-1.
78 Balfour and Mair, Four Power Control, 279.
79 Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 111-12.
80 Ibid., 112.
81 Ibid., 361-2.
82 Wagnleitner, ed., Herz, 401-3, 606-7.
83 See Staritz, DDR, 15.
84 Ibid., 17.
85 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 186, 198.
86 Staritz, DDR, 18.
87 Ibid., 21.
CHAPTER 20: THE BERLIN AIRLIFT AND THE BEGINNINGS OF ECONOMIC RECOVERY
1 Döblin, Schicksalsreise, 434, 439.
2 Ibid., 441.
3 Ibid., 444-5.
4 Ibid., 447.
5 Ibid., 452.
6 Ibid., 453-4.
7 Mastny, Cold War, 48.
8 Davidson, Death and Life, 224.
9 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, I, 274, 276, 302; Skrjabina, Allies on the Rhine, 82, 95.
10 Skrjabina, Allies on the Rhine, 114; Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 230.
11 Howley, Berlin Command, 186.
12 Ibid., 329.
13 Staritz, DDR, 23.
14 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 249.
15 Ruge, ed., Schulenburg, 92.
16 Willy Brandt and Richard Lowenthal, Ernst Reuter. Ein Leben für die Freiheit, Munich 1957, 358-60.
17 Mastny, Cold War, 41.
18 Ibid., 48.
19 Howley, Berlin Command, 177.
20 Kennan, Memoirs, 420; Bullock, Bevin, 574.
21 Bullock, Bevin, 571.
22 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, I, 478, 483.
23 Mastny, Cold War, 50.
24 Ibid., 49.
25 Bullock, Bevin, 566, 573; Graml, Teilung Deutschlands, 199.
26 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, I, 206, 201.
27 Ibid. 567; II, 612.
28 Quoted in Ann and John Tusa, The Berlin Blockade. Berlin in 1948. The Year the Cold War Threatened to Become Hot, London 1989, 138.
29 Mastny, Cold War, 46-7.
30 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 597, 599.
31 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 220-8.
32 Truman, Memoirs, II, 131.
33 Young, France, 198-9.
34 Howley, Berlin Command, 3-4.
35 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 600-2.
36 Ibid., 602-5.
37 Ibid., 605.
38 Ibid., 605, 607.
39 Ibid., 618, 621 n. 2; Davidson, Death and Life, 211.
40 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 649-50, 661, 677.
41 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 2
38.
42 Volker Koop, Tagebuch der Berliner Blockade. Von Schwarzmarkt und Rollkommandos, Bergbau und Bienenzucht, Bonn 1998, 11.
43 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 236.
44 Ibid., 237, 238.
45 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 700.
46 Howley, Berlin Command, 196-7, 199-200.
47 Bullock, Bevin, 573 and n. 1.
48 Weiler, Bevin, 179.
49 Bullock, Bevin, 576.
50 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 238-9.
51 Goedde, GIs and Germans, 166-7.
52 Truman, Memoirs, II, 130.
53 Ibid.
54 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 248; Howley, Berlin Command, 239.
55 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 246.
56 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 709, 711, 714.
57 Staritz, DDR, 26
58 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 248.
59 Staritz, DDR, 23.
60 Howley, Berlin Command, 209.
61 Lang, ‘Lieber Herr Celibidache’, 110.
62 Koop, Tagebuch, 18, 24.
63 Truman, Memoirs, II, 130.
64 Howley, Berlin Command, 202.
65 Truman, Memoirs, II, 132.
66 Ibid., 135.
67 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 746.
68 Davidson, Death and Life, 217; Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 242.
69 Truman, Memoirs, II, 132.
70 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 763-4.
71 Koop, Tagebuch, 41.
72 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 798, 820.
73 Ibid., 824.
74 Ibid., 831-2.
75 Ibid., 834, 844.
76 Mastny, Cold War, 52.
77 Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin, 260.
78 Buffet, Berlin, 369.
79 Goedde, GIs and Germans, 185, 187; Howley, Berlin Command, 218.
80 Koop, Tagebuch, 55-6.
81 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 856-7.
82 Ibid., 858, 860.
83 Truman, Memoirs, II, 136.
84 Davidson, Death and Life, 209.
85 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 908.
86 Koop, Tagebuch, 124-5.
87 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 928.
88 Howley, Berlin Command, 226.
89 Tent, Mission, 288.
90 Koop, Tagebuch, 133, pours a little cold water on this ‘legend’.
91 Davidson, Life and Death, 216; Clare, Berlin Days, 185; Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Blockade, 330, 389-90.
92 Staritz, DDR, 33.
93 Koop, Tagebuch, 139.
94 Speer, Diaries, 115.
95 Ibid,, 122.
96 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 1015.
97 Ibid., 1063.
98 Kennan, Memoirs, 429.
99 Ibid., 431-2.
100 Mastny, Cold War, 62.
101 Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Blockade, 395.
102 Clark, Calculated Risk, 429-30.
103 Smith, ed., Clay Papers, II, 625; Brook-Shepherd, Austrians, 395.
104 Béthouart, Bataille, 153.
105 Ibid., 157.
106 Ibid., 162.
107 Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 130.
108 Wagnleitner, Herz, 240-2, 249-53.
109 Ibid., 523-4; Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 152.
110 Béthouart, Bataille, 115; Rauchensteiner, Stalinplatz 4, 82.
111 Williams, Adenauer, 328.
112 Ibid., 332.
113 Ibid., 331.
114 Ibid., 332.
115 Ibid., 333.
116 Ibid., 334.
117 Young, France, 204-7.
118 Poidevin, Schuman, 77.
CONCLUSION
1 Williams, Adenauer, 341.
2 Dönhoff, Weit ist der Weg nach Osten, 305-6.
3 Staritz, DDR, 34.
4 Ibid., 34-5.
5 MacDonogh, The Last Kaiser, 196; the idea that the Kaiser was interested in European unity has been severely mocked by Volker Ulrich in Die Zeit: see ‘Der Kaiser lacht!’, 16 March 2000.
6 Poidevin, Schuman, 84.
7 Young, France, 41.
8 Jünger, Der Friede, 56, 60, 63.
9 Young, France, 9-10.
10 Ibid., 10-11.
11 Poidevin, Schuman, 84.
12 Gollancz, In Darkest Germany, 16.
13 Robert Birley, Britain in Europe: Reflections on the Development of a European Society, Reith Lectures, London 1949, 1-2.
14 Young, France, 11, 13.
15 Ibid., 229.
16 Margret Boveri, Der Verrat im XX. Jahrhundert - für und gegen die Nation, Hamburg 1956, 8; Philippe Burrin, La France à l’heure allemande, Paris 1995, 467.
17 Clark, Calculated Risk, 447-8.
18 Döblin, Schicksalsreise, 412, 408.
Further Reading
There is no book in English that covers the whole period, the four-power military occupation of Germany and Austria between the years 1945 and 1949. Douglas Botting’s In the Ruins of the Reich dwells on the early period, but omits Austria; while the dated but still useful Four Power Control in Germany and Austria by Michael Balfour and John Mair (Oxford 1956) finishes with the creation of Bizonia at the end of 1946. The former is strongest on chaos, the latter is best on administration. There are, however, some excellent monographs covering the individual German zones: Norman M. Nairmark’s The Russians in Germany (Cambridge, Mass. and London 1995), Edward N. Peterson’s Russian Commands and German Resistance: The Soviet Occupation 1945-1949 (New York 1999) and Gregory Klimov’s Terror Machine (London n.d.) all cover the east. On the US Zone there is Edward N. Peterson’s American Occupation of Germany (Detroit 1977). More recently Petra Goedde has looked at occupation from a woman’s angle in GIs and Germans (New Haven and London 2003).
The British Military Government is detailed in Patricia Meehan’s excellent book A Strange Enemy People: Germans under the British 1945-1950 (London and Chester Springs 2001). What is missing is a study of the French ZOF: John Young’s France, the Cold War and the Western Alliance (Leicester and London 1990) is not really that, because it is more concerned with foreign policy than with administration. There is no book in French either, where the literature is largely confined to the cultural achievements of the French occupation.
Nor is there much on Austria. The standby is Gordon Brook-Shepherd’s Austrocentric The Austrians - A Thousand Year Odyssey (London 1996), which explains the political background to the State Treaty, but does not offer much on the events of April 1945. The best source in English is probably Reinhold Wagnleitner, ed., Understanding Austria (Salzburg 1984), a compilation of the reports filed by the American OSS man Martin Herz. Mark Clark’s account, Calculated Risk (London 1956), was written at the height of the Cold War, and it shows.
There is a similar lack of documentation in English on events in Czechoslovakia. The best remains Alfred M. de Zayas’s Nemesis at Potsdam (London 1979). All the rest is in German. For a few pages of Czech perspective, see Zbynek Zeman and Antonin Klimek, The Life of Edvard Beneš 1884-1948 (Oxford 1997).
De Zayas also provides material on the events in the Prussian east. Count Hans Lehndorf ’s unbelievably moving East Prussian Diary was published in English in 1963. It should be reissued. We also possess Christian von Krockow’s Hour of the Women (London 1991), which charts the fortunes of his sister Libussa in Pomerania.
Two books record the fates of individual cities: Danzig is covered by Chris Tighe’s Gdansk - National Identity in the Polish-German Borderlands (London and Concord 1990), and Breslau’s fate is recounted in Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City by Norman Davies and Roger Moorhouse (London 2002).
The anonymous Woman in Berlin (London 1965) is a graphic account of the Russian arrival in the city. There is also an abridged edition of Ursula von Kardorff’s Diary of a Nightmare (London 1965). The most recent German edition, however, has restored the full text. Wolfgang Leonhard’s Child of the Revolution was translated by C. M. Woodhouse (London 1979) and is the standard account of the arrival of the Moscow-based G
erman communists.
There are a few serious American studies of denazification: James F. Tent’s Mission on the Rhine (Chicago and London 1982) and Timothy R. Vogt’s Denazification in Soviet-Occupied Germany (Cambridge, Mass. and London 2000). The most relaxed account of denazification is George Clare’s Berlin Days (London 1989). On individual cases Brigitte Hamann’s Winifred Wagner - At the Heart of Hitler’s Bayreuth (London 2005) is highly recommended.
For the pursuit and conviction of Nazi war criminals there is an emotional account by Tom Bower (Blind Eye to Murder, London 1981). R. T. Paget’s argument in Manstein - His Campaigns and his Trial (London 1951) is still cogent. G. M. Gilbert’s Nuremberg Diary (New York 1947) is another old book that has its uses. There are also the translated memoirs of the Nazis who served custodial terms: Speer (1976) and Papen (1952), as well as Peter Padfield’s life of Hess (1995) and lives of Göring by David Irving (1989) and Willy Frischauer (1950). Frank M. Buscher’s US War Crimes Trial Program in Germany (New York, Westport and London 1989) presents an academic approach. On the treatment of POWs there is nothing in English, and the leading American expert - Arthur L. Smith - publishes in German. The best there is can be found in Ernst von Saloman’s highly coloured account of his own imprisonment: The Answers (London 1954).
Robert H. Abzug gives details of the grisly discovery of the inner workings of the camps in his Inside the Vicious Heart (New York and Oxford 1985), as does Brewster Chamberlin and Marcia Feldman’s The Liberation of the Concentration Camps (Washington DC 1987), to which he provides an introduction. Ben Shepherd’s After Daybreak (London 2005) is specifically about the freeing of Belsen. On the surviving Jews there is Ruth Gay’s Safe among the Germans (New Haven and London 2002).
Victor Gollancz’s two polemics on the treatment of the Germans still make for salutary reading: Leaving them to their Fate: The Ethics of Starvation (London 1946) and In Darkest Germany (London 1947).
Marlis Steinert provides a scholarly account of the Flensburg regime in Capitulation 1945: The Story of the Dönitz Government (London 1969). Frank Howley’s account of the airlift, Berlin Command (New York 1950), should be read with caution. Ann and John Tusa’s Berlin Blockade (London 1989) is a still fresh general survey.
On culture in the Soviet Zone the best sources are David Pike’s Politics and Culture in Soviet-Occupied Germany (Stanford 1992) and Wolfgang Schivelbusch’s In a Cold Crater (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London 1998). I have also found Jenny Williams’s More Lives than One: A Biography of Hans Fallada (London 1998) useful. The rather muted cultural policy in the British Zone is easily gleaned from George Clare. The best source for America is Carl Zuckmayer’s report - Deutschlandbericht, für das Kriegministerium der Vereinigten Staaten von America (Göttingen 2004).
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