The Marshall Plan
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54 Clayton via Caffery to Lovett and C. Tyler Wood, August 12, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 355–56.
55 John D. Hickerson to Marshall, August 11, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 351–55.
56 Lovett to Clayton and Caffery, August 14, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 356–60.
57 Policy Planning Staff, memorandum, PPS/6, August 14, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 360–63; Lynch (May 1984:241).
58 Clayton to Marshall, August 6, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 344.
59 Kennan, notes for Marshall, July 21, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 336–37. See also Wesley C. Haraldson, memorandum of discussions of Clayton, Caffery, Nitze, and others in Paris, August 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 350.
60 Wesley C. Haraldson, memorandum of discussions of Clayton, Caffery, Nitze, and others in Paris, August 8, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 345–47.
61 Clayton and Caffery to Marshall, August 20, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 364.
62 Charles H. Bonesteel III to Lovett, memorandum, “Minutes of Meeting on Marshall ‘Plan’ 3:00 P.M., August 22, 1947,” in FRUS, 1947, III: 369–71.
63 Clayton to Clair Wilcox, June 17, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 955.
64 Winthrop G. Brown, interview by Richard D. McKinzie, May 25, 1973, Oral History Interviews, Truman Library. Irwin, Mavroidis, and Sykes (2008:90).
65 Lovett to Marshall, August 24, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 372–75.
66 Kennan, memorandum, “Situation with Respect to European Recovery Program,” September 4, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 397.
67 Milward (1992 [2000]:335).
68 Lynch (May 1984:237–40); Hervé Alphand, paper, January 28, 1947, FO371/64430, Foreign Office, UKNA.
69 Hogan (1987:68–70).
70 Truman (1972:352).
71 Steil (2013:262); Herring (June 1971:271).
72 Clayton to Lovett, August 22, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 977–79.
73 Clair Wilcox to Clayton, August 6, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 974–77.
74 Lovett to Clayton, August 26, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 980–82.
75 Harry C. Hawkins and Winthrop G. Brown, memorandum for Clayton and Douglas, September 24, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 996–98.
76 Lovett to Marshall, August 24, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 376–77.
77 International Monetary Fund (1947:27).
78 From the diary of M. Cherkasov, First Secretary, Embassy of the USSR in Norway, record of a conversation with the head of the foreign department, “Verdens Gang” newspaper, Hans Engen, July 9, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 046, op. 7, P. 126, file 48, pp. 84–86.
79 Kennan, memorandum, “Situation with Respect to European Recovery Program,” September 4, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 397.
80 Clayton via Caffery to Marshall and Lovett, August 31, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 391–96; Reynolds (May/June 1997).
81 Clayton via Caffery to Marshall and Lovett, August 31, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 391–96.
82 Kennan, memorandum, “Situation with Respect to European Recovery Program,” September 4, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 397–401.
83 Blair (September 7, 1947).
84 Kennan, memorandum, “Situation with Respect to European Recovery Program,” September 4, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 397–401.
85 Kennan, memorandum, “Situation with Respect to European Recovery Program,” September 4, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 403–5; Reynolds (May/June 1997).
86 Lovett to Clayton and Caffery, September 7, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 417.
87 Marshall to Douglas, September 5, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 409.
88 Lovett to U.S. diplomatic representatives accredited to CEEC participant countries, September 7, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 413; Lovett to Clayton and Caffery, September 7, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 417.
89 Lovett to Truman, September 6, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 411; Lovett to Clayton and Caffery, September 7, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 417.
90 Hogan (1987:78–79).
91 Douglas to Marshall, September 9, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 421; Lovett to Truman, September 6, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 420; Clayton, Caffery, and Douglas to Marshall and Lovett, September 11, 1947, FRUS, 1947, III: 421–23; Douglas to Marshall, September 12, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 428; Milward (1984:87).
92 Clayton, Caffery, and Douglas to Lovett, September 15, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 433.
93 “Special Message to the Congress Requesting Extension of the Reciprocal Trade Act,” March 1, 1948, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1948: 169; Irwin, Mavroidis, and Sykes (2008:93). The GATT was intended as a stopgap until the Truman administration could get ratification of the International Trade Organization through Congress; the ITO, however, was never ratified owing to concerns over usurpation of U.S. sovereignty and congressional power. See, for example, Kaplan (1996:52–53) and Gerber (2012:46–47).
94 New York Times (October 15, 1947); Fossedal and Mikhail (May/June 1997).
95 Fossedal (1993:258); Le Monde (October 17, 1947).
96 Van der Beugel (1966:74).
97 European Commission (September 19, 2016): http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/40customs/customs_general_info/about/index_en.htm.
98 Milward (1984:88).
99 CEEC (September 1947:69).
100 Van der Beugel (1966:72).
101 CEEC (September 1947:1–3).
102 Sebastian Haffner in The Observer (London), July 17, 1947, quoted in Calvocoressi (1952:105).
103 “Reference” written for Zhdanov in the Foreign Department of the Central Committee, around September 2, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 575, op. 1, file 3, pp. 57, 58, 60, 62.
104 “George Marshall, Secretary of State of USA,” September 18, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 575, op. 1, file 35, pp. 103, 103/reverse side.
105 I am indebted to Svetlana Chervonnaya for highlighting this.
106 “References on the USA of the Foreign Department of the Central Committee,” September 18, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 575, op. 1, file 35, pp. 28–29.
CHAPTER 7: PERSUASION
1 Beisner (2006:145).
2 Video footage (in Russian): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6f7qIPODFfg (British Pathé [April 13, 2014]). Partial text (in English): http://astro.temple.edu/~rimmerma/vyshinsky_speech_to_un.htm (“Vyshinsky Speech to U.N. General Assembly”).
3 Smith to Marshall, September 30, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, IV: 590–91.
4 Reston (October 26, 1947).
5 The countries participating were Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. “Memorandum by A. A. Zhdanov to I. V. Stalin on the anticipated program of the conference of nine Communist parties in Poland,” RGASPI, Fond 77, op. 3, file 90.
6 L. Baranov to Zhdanov, untitled instructions for the delegates of VCP (b) at the conference of the Communist parties in Poland, August 15, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 575, op. 1, file 3, pp. 1–3.
7 Zhdanov to Stalin, September 23 and 24, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 77, op. 3, file 92, pp. 16–20; Tiersky (1974:160); Pons (Spring 2001:14).
8 Reston (October 7, 1947).
9 Life (November 24, 1947).
10 “References on France of the Foreign Department of the Central Committee,” undated, RGASPI Fond 575, op. 1, file. 38, pp. 61–62; Molotov to Sovposol, June 3, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 392, pp. 33–34.
11 Zhdanov to Stalin, September 23, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 77, op. 3, file 92, pp. 6–7; Djilas (1983:134).
12 Zhdanov’s texts from the period of the conference, September 24, RGASPI, Fond 77, op. 3, file 92, p. 49; Parrish (March 1994:32–35); Yergin (1977:326); Zubok and Pleshakov (1996:132); Judt (2005:143).
13 Discussion of Zhdanov’s report, statements by Duclos and Longo, September 26, 1947, RGASPI, Fond 575, op. 1, file 1, pp. 209–19, 241–44.
14 Judt (2015:71).
15 See, for example, Boterbloem (2004:11).
16 Zubok and Pleshakov (1996:116); Alliluyeva (1969:384).
17 Zhdanov, “On the International Situation,” reprinted in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948), Strategy and Tact
ics of World Communism.
18 Comintern membership reached seventy-six Communist parties and affiliated groups in 1935, when it met for the last time. Adibekov, Shakhnazarov, and Shirinya (1997).
19 Zhdanov, “On the International Situation,” reprinted in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1948), Strategy and Tactics of World Communism.
20 The Bulgarian coalition lasted from September 9, 1944, to October 27, 1946. The four-party “Fatherland Front” coalition was installed in a bloodless coup on September 9, 1944. It included the Communist Bulgarian Workers’ Party, the Agrarian Party, the Socialist Party, and the People’s Union Zveno. (“Current Intelligence Study Number 28,” June 29, 1945, Research and Analysis Branch 1930–1946, Office of Strategic Services, RG 226, National Archives.) The Communist Party came to dominate the coalition; it won an absolute majority of seats (277 of 465) in the elections of October 27, 1946. However, it continued to operate through the “Fatherland Front.” (New York Times [October 29, 1946].)
21 The Czechoslovak coalition lasted from April 5, 1945, to February 20, 1948. Its collapse is described later in the book. Nedelsky (2012:115).
22 The Hungarian coalition lasted from December 22, 1944, to May 15, 1949. A provisional government formed of five political parties (Communist, Social Democratic, Citizens Democratic, Smallholders, and People’s Peasant) was created in December 1944. The coalition continued after the elections of November 1945, in which the Communists received only 17 percent of the vote. The Communists gradually squeezed out their coalition partners one by one (known widely as “salami tactics”) until, finally, there was just a single list of candidates issued by the Communist Hungarian’s People’s Front for Independence for the elections of May 1949. Staar (1971 [1988]:124–25); Roman (2003:613); Hodge and Nolan (2007:428).
23 The Polish coalition government, dominated by the Communist Party in accordance with Stalin’s demands at Yalta, was constituted on June 21, 1945. When the Polish Peasant Party was eliminated on February 5, 1947, “the coalition became little more than a façade for Communist power, something even the Communists did not conceal.” Kersten (1991:156, 350).
24 The Romanian coalition government lasted from March 6, 1945, to December 30, 1947. Under Soviet influence, Romania formed what appeared to be a “broad coalition government,” which included members of the Liberal and National Peasant parties, on March 6, 1945. However, the important government posts were held by Communists. Communists and their allies claimed a big victory in the election of November 1946, which was marked by propaganda and intimidation of the opposition. King Michael attempted to block a total Communist takeover but was forced to abdicate on December 30, 1947. That day, the Romanian People’s Republic was declared. Boia (2001:114–15).
25 Kennan I (1967:521).
26 Gomułka’s speech in the course of discussion of Zhdanov’s report, RGASPI, Fond 575, op. 1, file 1, pp. 244–65; Toranska (1987:282-283); Haslam (2011:89–90).
27 Zubok and Pleshakov (1996:135); Gibianski (1994:41).
28 Yergin (1977:382).
29 Khrushchev (1971:181).
30 Reston (October 12, 1947).
31 Beevor and Cooper (1994 [2004]:292).
32 Central Intelligence Agency to the President, November 7, 1947, Folder: “Memoranda 1945–1948,” Box 213, Central Intelligence File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
33 Caffery to Marshall, December 5, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 813.
34 Caffery to Marshall, September 30, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 761–62.
35 James C. Dunn to Marshall, September 17, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 974.
36 Caffery to Marshall, Telegram, October 4, 1947, 840.50 Recovery/10-347, RG 59, National Archives.
37 Behrman (2007) claims three million strikers without providing a source. But this number is almost certainly a wild exaggeration, having apparently only come from the CGT confederation of trade unions (Lorwin [1954:124]). An Associated Press report on November 25 said there were an estimated one million strikers at that point (Chicago Tribune [November 25, 1947]). Tiersky says that the number “was estimated variously at between one and two million” by the end of November (before the strikes began to subside on December 1). Tiersky (1974:169–70).
38 In the October municipal elections, the RPF received 38 percent of the vote, the Communists 30 percent, and the Socialists 19 percent.
39 Lippmann’s The Cold War was published on November 12, 1947.
40 Lippmann (November 4, 1947).
41 “Record of the Meeting of Comrade I[osef] V[issarionivich] Stalin with the Secretary of the Central Committee of the French Communist Party [Maurice] Thorez,” November 18, 1947, in Levering, Pechatnov, Botzenhart-Viehe, and Edmondson (2001:173–75).
42 A secret State Department report said de Gaulle was propagating “frankly totalitarian concepts,” and that “his only firm adherents now are discredited men of the Right.” Blair (September 7, 1947); Life (December 1, 1947); Reston (October 21, 1947); Beevor and Cooper (1994 [2004]:294–97).
43 Hitchcock (1998:90).
44 Callender (November 23, 1947).
45 Macintyre (2014:111). The OSS was a predecessor to the CIA, which was established through the National Security Act in September 1947.
46 Cortesi (November 17, 1947); Callender (November 18, 1947); Behrman (2007:118–21); Yergin (1977:332).
47 Cortesi (November 16, 1947); Cortesi (October 28, 1947); Cortesi (January 18, 1948).
48 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:289).
49 Steil (2013:306–7); Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:365); Crider (July 14, 1946).
50 Advisory Steering Committee, memorandum, “Immediate Need for Emergency Aid for Europe,” September 29, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 475.
51 Steinkopf (September 28, 1947).
52 Advisory Steering Committee, memorandum, “Immediate Need for Emergency Aid for Europe,” September 29, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, III: 476–77.
53 Frank McNaughton to Don Bermingham, October 4, 1947, Folder: “October 1947,” Box 14, McNaughton Reports File, McNaughton Papers, Truman Library; Senator Carl A. Hatch to Truman, correspondence, October 16, 1947, Folder: “Economic Cooperation Administration—Special Session of Congress,” Box 4, Subject File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library; Lincoln Gordon, Memorandum for the President, September 20, 1947, Folder: “Economic Cooperation Administration—Special Session of Congress,” Box 4, Subject File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library.
54 Raymond (October 4, 1947).
55 Washington Post (January 11, 1948).
56 Washington Post (October 5, 1947).
57 Waggoner (September 5, 1947).
58 Washington Post (September 24, 1947).
59 White (September 24, 1947).
60 Behrman (2007:115); Gallup I (1972:661, 680); Phillips (October 19, 1947).
61 Frank McNaughton to Don Bermingham, October 4, 1947, Folder: “October 1947,” Box 14, McNaughton Reports File, McNaughton Papers, Truman Library; Yergin (1977:329).
62 Albright (September 7, 1947).
63 Skidelsky III (2000:432).
64 White (1953:379).
65 Phillips (October 19, 1947); Price (1955:51–55); Behrman (2007:116); Wilson (1977:36).
66 Reston (December 9, 1947).
67 White (November 2, 1947).
68 Price (1955:51–55).
69 House Select Committee on Foreign Aid (May 1948:16–17).
70 In addition to the President’s Committee on Foreign Aid (the “Harriman Committee”), there were the Krug and Nourse committees, which reported on October 19 and November 1, respectively. Focusing on the domestic implications of a large-scale foreign aid program, they each broadly concluded that the initiative was manageable.
71 P. Zhuravlev to Gerashchenko, December 6, 1947, AVP RF, Fond 046, op. 7, P. 126, file 48, p. 193.
72 Harris (July 22, 1956).
73 Hachey (Winter 1973–1974:148).
74 Price (1955:45), quoting an u
nnamed member of the committee’s staff.
75 Hogan (1987:101).
76 Wilson (1977:34).
77 Dales (October 26, 1954); Washington Post (August 13, 1956).
78 Bissell (1996:37); Behrman (2007:132–33); Pisani (1991:60).
79 President’s Committee on Foreign Aid (November 1947:11).
80 Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on the Marshall Plan,” December 19, 1947, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1947.
81 Harold Stein, interview with Harry B. Price, August 7, 1952, Folder: “August–October, 1952,” Box 1, Oral History Interview File, Price Papers, Truman Library. Hogan (1987:100).
82 Hoffman, interview with Harry B. Price, January 28, 1953, Folder: “January–June, 1953,” Box 1, Oral History Interview File, Price Papers, Truman Library.
83 Belair (November 16, 1947).
84 Gallup I (1972:683, 691).
85 Lawrence B. Smith, statement, November 14, 1947, in House Committee on Foreign Affairs (1947:231); Price (1955:51–55); Barber (April 9, 2014).
86 Van der Beugel (1966:83).
87 Stimson (October 1947).
88 “Report on the Activities of the Committee for the Marshall Plan to Aid European Recovery,” submitted by the Executive Director, April 5, 1948, Folder: “Committee for the Marshall Plan: Correspondence, 1947–1948 [3 of 3],” Box 4, Political and Governmental File, Acheson Papers, Truman Library.
89 Michael Wala provides information on the various study groups that the Council on Foreign Relations convened to discuss the Marshall Plan and related postwar foreign policy initiatives. Wala (1994:159–69).
90 Huempfer (2016).
91 New York Times (December 6, 1947).
92 New York Times (September 2, 1947); Blair (February 16, 1948).
93 Adams (September 1, 1947).
94 New York Times (November 19, 1947).
95 New York Times (February 9, 1948).
96 Washington Post (October 21, 1947).
97 Furman (February 3, 1948).
98 Grutzner (November 19, 1947).
99 Warren (December 18, 1947).
100 Behrman (2007:124–25, 138–39).
101 Pearson (December 18, 1947).
102 New York Times (February 18, 1948).
103 “Provisional Record of Decisions of the Council of Foreign Ministers, Forty-Third Meeting, Moscow, Aviation Industry House, April 24, 4 p.m.,” in FRUS, 1947, II: 386–88.