The Marshall Plan
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43 Mastny (1996:48); Buffet (1991:190).
44 Harrington (2012:99–100, 268–69).
45 Clay (1950:367).
46 White (1953:145).
47 Gaddis (2011:322); Policy Planning Staff, paper, “The Attitude of This Government Toward Events in Yugoslavia,” PPS/35, June 30, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, IV: 1079–81.
48 Harrington (2012:62); Eben A. Ayers, diary, May 17, 1948, Folder: “Jan. 1, 1948–May 31, 1948,” Box 20, Ayers Papers, Truman Library.
49 Harrington (2012:85–86, 100–101, 106, 110).
50 Douglas to Marshall, June 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 924; Harrington (2012:80–81, 95, 103, 112); Paniushkin to Marshall, July 14, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 960–64; Ray T. Maddocks to Bradley, June 28, 1948, Folder: “1948—Hot File—P&O 092 TS thru 381 TS,” Box 9, General Administrative File, RG 519, National Archives; Harris (April 1949:13–16).
51 Murphy to Marshall, June 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 919; Harrington (2012:86–88).
52 Clay to Royall and Jacob D. Beam, June 25, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 918; Murphy to Marshall, June 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 920.
53 Harrington (2012:59–60); Berkowitz, Bock, and Fuccillo (1977:45); Teleconference transcript attached to Mayo to Wedemeyer, April 2, 1948, Case 88/26, Sec. 1, P&O 381 TS, Box 102, P&O TS Decimal File, RG 319, National Archives; Douglas to Marshall, April 28, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 899–900; Smith (1990:496–97) fails to mention Clay’s comment that war appeared “inevitable,” but highlights elsewhere that Clay was not averse to embellishing communications to achieve desired effects at given points in time.
54 Raymond (June 25, 1948).
55 Harrington (2012:82, 103); T. S. Timberman to Ray T. Maddocks, June 28, 1948, Case 88/59, and T. S. Timberman to Schuyler, June 30, 1948, Case 88/43, both in Section 2, P&O 381 TS, Box 103, P&O TS Decimal File, RG 319, National Archives.
56 Murphy to Marshall, June 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 920; Jacob D. Beam, “Memorandum for the Record,” June 28, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 928.
57 Murphy (1964:317).
58 Douglas to Lovett, July 17, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 968–69.
59 “Letter of the Soviet Ambassador in the USA A. S. Paniushkin to the US Secretary of State G. K. Marshall on the violation of the agreed decisions on Germany and Berlin by the western nations, July 14, 1948,” AVP RF, Fond 192, op. 15a, P. 150, file 1, pp. 113–20; Leffler (1992:219); Cabinet Meeting Minutes, July 23, 1948, Folder: “July 1948,” Box 1, Notes on Cabinet Meetings II, Connelly Papers, Truman Library.
60 Clay to Draper, “Berlin Blockade,” CC-5222, July 19, 1948, in Smith II (1974:743–46).
61 Harrington (2012:127–28, 138–39); Clay to Bradley, CC-5118, July 10, 1947, in Smith II (1974:733–35); Gobarev (September 1997:15–17); LeMay (1965:411–12).
62 Harrington (2012:97).
63 Maclean was appointed co-director of a British-American-Canadian atomic power policy office in February 1947, thus greatly increasing his exposure to secret documentation on such issues. The Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence, V: 83; Harrington (2012:81, 119–22).
64 Harrington (2012:150); Truman, “The President’s News Conference of July 22, 1948,” in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1948: 412; Truman (1974:17).
65 “The Positions of the Official Circles of the USA, England and France in the German Question at the London Conference,” June 6–June 29, 1948, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 10, P. 39, file 525, pp. 4–7. It is unclear the date on which the report went to Molotov, who annotated it in blue pencil, but it may not have been until early July.
66 “Record of Teletype Conference Between the State Department and the Embassy in the United Kingdom,” July 22, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 979–80.
67 Smith to Marshall, July 31, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 996–98; Record of the conversation of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR V. M. Molotov with the U.S. Ambassador in the USA W. B. Smith on the transportation communication between Berlin and the Western zones, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 10, P. 64, file 910, pp. 39–42.
68 Cecil (1989:86–87); Kerr (1990).
69 Smith to Marshall, August 3, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 999–1006; Smith (1950:245); Harrington (2012:151–53); Narinsky (1996:68); Record of the conversation of I. V. Stalin with the U.S. Ambassador in the USSR W. B. Smith, representative of the UK Foreign Office W. Roberts, and the French Ambassador in the USSR Y. Chataigneau, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 382, pp. 58–79.
70 Narinsky (1996:57–75).
71 Smith (1990:515–16).
72 Harrington (2012:153–54); Clay, Royall, Bohlen, and others, teleconference, TT-9890, August 3, 1948, in Smith II (1974:749–51); Clay to Bradley and Royall, August 4, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1011–13.
73 Clay, Draper, and Lawrence Wilkinson, teleconference, TT-1010, August 7, 1948, in Smith II (1974:755–63).
74 Harrington (2012:154); Marshall to Smith, August 3, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1008–9.
75 Smith to Marshall, August 5, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1016–17; Smith to Marshall, August 6, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1018–21; Marshall to Smith, August 10, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1030; Molotov to Stalin, submitting a “detailed record” of his conversation with Smith, Chataigneau, and Roberts, the “draft of a joint comminuqué” prepared by the ambassadors, and a draft prepared at the Soviet Foreign Ministry, August 7, 1948, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 10, P. 37, file 496, pp. 1–3.
76 Harrington (2012:155).
77 Murphy to Marshall, August 11, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1031; Harrington (2012:155–56); Smith to Marshall, August 9, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1024–27; Marshall to Smith, August 10, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1028–32; Clay to Draper, August 10, 1948, in Smith II (1974:764).
78 Harrington (2012:74, 158–59); Murphy to Marshall, August 13, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1038–40; Murphy to Marshall, August 27, 1948, 740.00119 Control (Germany)/8-2748, RG 59, National Archives; Clay to Bradley and Draper, CC-5632, August 21, 1948, in Smith II (1974:776); CIA 8-48, August 19, 1948, Folder: “NSC Meeting 18,” Box 178, National Security Council—Meetings File, Subject File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
79 Smith to Marshall, August 12, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1035–38; Smith to Marshall, August 17, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1042–47; Smith to Marshall, August 17, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1047–49; Record of Molotov’s conversations with Smith, Chataigneau, and Roberts, August 12 and 16, 1948, AVP RF, Fond 06, op. 10, P. 37, file 494, pp. 1–28 and 29–61.
80 Harrington (2012:159); R. H. Hillenkoetter to Truman, August 6, 1948, Folder: “Memoranda, 1945–1948,” Box 213, Central Intelligence File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library; Memorandum for the President, August 20, 1948, Folder: “Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948,” Box 188, National Security Council—Meetings File, Subject File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
81 Marshall to Smith, August 17, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1054.
82 For example, Bohlen, memorandum of conversation with Henri Bonnet, August 21, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1060.
83 Smith to Marshall, August 4, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1011; Feigel (2016:331).
84 Smith to Marshall, August 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1065–68; Marshall to Smith, August 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1077; Record of the conversation of I. V. Stalin with the US ambassador W. B. Smith, the French ambassador in the USSR Y. Chataigneau, and the representative of the UK Foreign Office W. Roberts on the issues of the Berlin crisis, August 23, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 382, pp. 58–79.
85 Smith to Marshall, August 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1067–68; Jacob D. Beam, memorandum, August 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1071–72; Marshall to Smith, August 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1072–74.
86 Smith to Marshall, August 25, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1078–79.
87 Smith to Marshall, August 30, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1093–96.
88 Djilas (1962:1
53).
89 Murphy to Marshall, August 31, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1099; Harrington (2012:164); Clay to Panuch, August 31, 1948, attached to Panuch to Clay, June 29, 1948, Folder: “Personal Correspondence,” Box 13, Military Government of Germany File, Panuch Papers, Truman Library.
90 Molotov’s cipher cable to Berlin (with instructions for the forthcoming negotiations of the four commanders in Berlin), August 31, 1948, in The USSR and the German Question 1941–1949, IV: 239 (sourced to AVP RF, Fond 059, op. 20, P. 4, file 29, p. 56). Fond 059 holds the cipher cables collection, which is now off-limits.
91 Sokolovsky subsequently offered to remove Berlin communications restrictions imposed after March 30, rather than June 18, but still insisted that agreements in 1945 limited corridor traffic to garrison supply—nothing more.
92 Murphy to Marshall, September 1, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1100–3; Bohlen, memorandum, “Brief for the President,” September 2, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1108–9; Clay to the Department of the Army, September 4, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1109–12; Lovett to Paniushkin, September 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1187–93; Harrington (2012:165–66); Murphy to Marshall, September 4, 1948, 740.00119 Control (Germany)/9-448, RG 59, National Archives; Clay-Draper correspondence in Smith II (1974:798–826).
93 Harrington (2012:166–67); Clay to Draper, September 3, 1948, in Smith II (1974:814–15); Clay, teleconference with Royall, Draper, and others, TT-1131, September 2, 1948, in Smith II (1974:802).
94 Murphy to Marshall, September 7, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1134; Feigel (2016:320).
95 Friedensburg was deputy mayor of the City Council until August 14, 1948, when he took over from Mayor Louise Schroeder owing to her illness. Ferdinand Friedensburg, memorandum of conversation with Major Otschkin, September 21, 1948, Bundesarchiv Koblenz N1114/34.
96 Feigel (2016:320–21); Harrington (2012:167–68); Murphy to Marshall, September 10, 1948, 862.00/9-1048, RG 59, National Archives; Louis Glaser, “Political Report No. 14,” September 11, 1948, Folder: “Political Reports 11–17,” Box 903, Public Safety Branch Records, RG 260, National Archives; Louis Glaser, report, September 10, 1948, Folder: “Memos and Reports, Col Glaser,” Box 71, Records of the Civil Administration and Political Affairs Branch, RG 260, National Archives.
97 Marshall to Smith, September 10, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1145–46.
98 Harrington (2012:172); Folder: “September, 1948,” Box 75, Daily Sheets File, President’s Appointment File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library; Forrestal, diary entry, “Meeting—the President,” September 13, 1948, in Millis (1951:487).
99 Smith to Marshall, September 14, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1157–60; The Soviet Ministry for Foreign Affairs to the Embassies of the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, September 18, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1162–65; Harrington (2012:173).
100 Jessup to Lovett, October 20, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1228–30; James Riddleberger to Lovett, October 21, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1230–31; Lovett to Caffery, October 22, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1231–33; Douglas to Lovett, October 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1234–36.
101 Foy D. Kohler to Acheson, February 2, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 667–68.
102 Harrington (2012:170, 175); Memo for the President, September 9, 1948, Folder: “Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948,” Box 188, National Security Council—Meetings File, Subject File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library; Smith to Marshall, September 16, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1160–62.
103 Harrington (2012:141–42, 148); Tunner (1964:159–60); Anderson to Symington, August 4, 1948, Sec. 2, Folder: “OPD 381 Berlin (15 Jan 48),” Box 808, TS Decimal File, RG 341, National Archives.
104 “I asked [French] General Ganeval to advocate strongly with his colleagues that everything be undertaken in the near future for an average output of 6000t to arrive daily. This amount is in my opinion necessary for the maintenance of the supply if the Blockade drags on for a longer time.” Ferdinand Friedensburg, memorandum, September 13, 1948, Bundesarchiv Koblenz, N1114/34; Harrington (2012:178–79); Royall, Clay, and Draper, teleconference, TT-1271, September 19, 1948, in Smith II (1974:867, 877); T. S. Timberman to Albert C. Wedemeyer, August 23, 1948, Folder: “P&O 092 TS thru 381 TS 1948 Hot File,” Box 9, General Administrative File, RG 319, National Archive; Memo for the President, July 23, 1948, Folder: “Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948,” Box 188, National Security Council—Meetings File, Subject File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library; Clay to Bradley and LeMay, CC-5895, September 10, 1948, in Smith II (1974:852).
105 Truman II (1956:213).
106 William L. Batt, Jr., to Clifford, memorandum, “Public Opinion on Our Conduct of Foreign Policy,” May 8, 1948, Folder: “William L. Batt, Jr., Director of Research, DNC—Misc. Correspondence [1948-49],” Box 21, Political File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library.
107 Eisenhower’s name came up as early as July. William L. Batt, Jr., to Clifford, memorandum, July 22, 1948, Folder: “William L. Batt, Jr., Director of Research, DNC—Misc. Correspondence [1948–49],” Box 21, Political File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library.
108 Draft of Truman address on the Vinson mission, October 4, 1948, Folder: “Russia [8 of 8],” Box 16, Subject File, Clifford Papers, Truman Library.
109 Minutes of a meeting of Marshall, Bevin, and Schuman, September 21, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1178.
110 Statement of the President, October 9, 1948, Folder: “OF 198—Berlin Blockade,” Box 830, Official File, White House Central Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library; Harrington (2012:190–96); Trohan (1975:239–40); Eben A. Ayers, diary, October 5 and 9, 1948, Folder: “June, 1948–December 31, 1948,” Box 20, Diary File, Ayers Papers, Truman Library; Pogue IV (1987:407); Bohlen (1973:269); McCullough (1992:686).
111 Beevor and Cooper (1994 [2004]:327); Foy D. Kohler to Marshall, October 14, 1948, 851.00B/10-1448, RG 59, National Archives.
112 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:462); Pruessen (1982:383–88).
113 Ambassador Douglas himself was discomforted, not knowing whether Marshall’s aim was seeking a solution or sanction for the use of force. See Jessup, memorandum of conversation, September 27, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1193.
114 Harrington (2012:180).
115 Policy Planning Staff, “Position of the United States with Respect to Germany Following the Breakdown of Moscow Discussions,” PPS/42, November 2, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1240–47.
116 Policy Planning Staff, “Résumé of World Situation,” PPS/13, November 6, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, I: 773.
117 Minutes of the 286th Policy Planning Staff Meeting, September 28, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1196.
118 Vyshinsky, speech to the UN General Assembly, September 25, 1948, printed in Vyshinsky (1948); New York Times (September 26, 1948), “Russian Spurs U.N.”
119 Kuznetsov to Vyshinsky, July 15, 1948, AVP RF, Fond 07, op. 21d, P. 53, file 21, p. 26; New York Times (October 3, 1948); New York Times (September 26, 1948), “Oil Company Denies Soviet Map Charge.”
120 Instructions to Vyshinsky regarding representation of the USSR at the UN Security Council in the matter of the Berlin issue, October 2–3, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 17, op. 166, file 797.
121 Harrington (2012:189); No. 113 (361st meeting, October 4, 1948) and No. 114 (362nd meeting, October 5, 1948) in UN Security Council (1948); McCullough (1992:685–86).
122 Vyshinsky to Molotov, phone cable, October 6, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, p. 98; Vyshinsky to Molotov, ciper cable, October 11, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, pp. 110–11; Molotov to Stalin, cipher cable, October 12, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, p. 112; Molotov to Vyshinsky, October 14, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109; Vyshinsky to Molotov, cipher cable, October 14, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, pp. 121–23; Molotov to Stalin, October 15, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, p. 124; Stalin to Moscow, CC VCP (b), October 15
, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, p. 125; Molotov to Stalin, October 15, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, p. 130; Stalin to Moscow, October 15, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, p. 130; Molotov to CC VCP (b), October 15, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 558, op. 11, file 109, pp. 132–33; From the diary of Vyshinsky, October 21 and 24, 1948, AVP RF, Fond 082, op. 35, P. 165, file 32, pp. 29–35; Lovett to Caffery, October 3, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1210–11; Molotov to Foy D. Kohler, October 3, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1204–5; Bohlen, memorandum of conversation, October 4, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1212; Bohlen to Marshall, October 8, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1215; From the diary of Yu. Dashkevich, November 9, 1948, AVP RF, Fond 082, op. 35, P. 165, file 32, p. 44.
123 Interview with Acheson, Wire II, July 9, 1953, Folder: “July 8–9, 1953,” Box 79, Princeton Seminars File, Acheson Papers, Truman Library: 18.
124 From the diary of G. M. Ratiani, recording conversation with U.N. press department deputy Auden, AVP RF, Fond 082, op. 35, P. 165, file 32, p. 46.
125 Jessup to Lovett, October 16, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1227–28.
126 Jessup to Lovett, November 3, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1247.
127 Caffery to Lovett, October 27, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1238; Lovett to Murphy, October 30, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1239; Marshall to Clay, November 18, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1254–55; Lovett to Caffery, November 19, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1255–56; Dulles to Marshall, November 23, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1257–60; Murphy to Marshall, November 24, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1260–62; Murphy to Marshall, November 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1268–70; Murphy to Marshall, November 27, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1270–72; Marshall to Jessup and Bohlen, November 28, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1272–74.
CHAPTER 12: DIVISION
1 McCullough (1992:713–14, 717).
2 Haas (2016:250–51).
3 Acheson (1969:249).
4 “U.S. Zone Germans View the Airlift,” Report No. 144, October 26, 1948, and “How Berliners Expect and Want the Crisis Settled: With Their Recommendations,” Report No. 147, November 17, 1948, in Merritt and Merritt (1970:263–64, 267–68); Lovett to the Embassy in the United Kingdom, December 18, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1281; Harrington (2012:226–27, 244, 249).