Louis Armstrong, Master of Modernism

by Thomas Brothers

  152His year with Henderson … the fall of 1925: Magee 2005, 72–96, gives a good critique of the issue of Armstrong’s impact. But see also the important counterview advanced in Spring 1993, 126–41, with special attention to micro-levels of rhythmic nuance, as coordinated with repertory. New York Age, March 28 and April 18, 1925. “considerable”: Magee 2005, 84.

  152Armstrong was another … “Your boy, Rex”: Stewart 1991, 89. Freeman CJA 1980.

  152Henderson worked hard … 2:00 or 3:00 in the morning: Scott IJS 1979. Bushell 1988, 36. Chilton 1987, 64; Waters 1985, 103. Scott IJS 1979; Marshall 1943, 85.

  153A favorite hangout spot … leave the building: Smith 1964, 159. Marshall 1943, 85; Barker IJS. Armstrong 1946, 42.

  153a source that is early: Goffin 1977, 204–5.

  153When Armstrong said … dissatisfaction with Henderson: Armstrong 1936, 80. “I knew”: Armstrong LAHM 1970.

  153Just a week … three bluesiest players: “playing”: Villetard 1984, n.p. Williams WRC 1970; Russell 1999, 356.

  154If Mamie Smith’s singing … “play popular music”: Bushell 1988, 23; Albertson 2003, 89. Scott IJS 1979.

  154“Your best bet is to keep your fillins rather simple”: Sudhalter 1999, 503.

  155George M. Cohan wickedly nicknamed the building: On the Gaiety building, see Hinton IJS 1976; Hurwitt 2000, 196; Bradford 1965, 130.

  155Williams is credited as the composer: Co-composer credit is given to one Fae Barnes, and one can only guess if this is the Faye Barnes who sang more commonly as Maggie Jones.

  155Trumpeter Mutt Carey … took it all in: Brothers 2006, 269–71.

  156there was tension between them: Armstrong had several falling-outs like this in his later career, with, for example, Earl Hines, Zutty Singleton, Coleman Hawkins, and Benny Goodman.

  156The two solos that distinguish Texas Moaner Blues: Armstrong’s solo is transcribed in Schuller 1968, 96. The “ubiquitous one” appears in mm. 2, 6, 10–12.

  157“were two of a kind”: Foster 2005, 195.

  157Armstrong’s solos with the Henderson band: Magee 1992, 326; Allen 1973, 128.

  158Clarinetist Paul Barnes: Barnes HJA 1959.

  158One of his personal favorites … “emancipated the jazz musician”: Armstrong 1950, 24. “Emancipated”: Jones and Chilton 1971, 99.

  159“Louie, I’ll give you change for a thousand dollars”: Albertson 2003, 90; Armstrong 1971, 211.

  160His solo on Cold in Hand Blues: Jones and Chilton 1971, 99. Teagarden had already heard Armstrong before he left New Orleans, playing In the Land of Beginning Again (Grant Clarke and George W. Meyer, 1918) with Fate Marable’s band on the SS Sidney; Armstrong IJS 1965.

  163“I had never heard such a thing”: Randolph IJS 1977.

  163varies phrase lengths: The solo is transcribed and discussed in Schuller 1968, 96.

  163he remembered the party: Armstrong 1999, 92; Armstrong WRC 1954.

  164Sidney Bechet bristled: Lewis 1979, 172.

  Chapter 5: “This Is What Really Relates to Us”: The Dreamland Café, the Vendome Theater, and the First Hot Five Records

  165“His method of playing jazz”: Scrapbook 6, LAHM.

  165Chicago was waiting for him: Anderson 2007, 16; Ory 1950a, 17; Ory CJA n.d.

  165His wife had been … about upstaging Oliver: Armstrong 1999, 94; Wilson 1968; Defender, Nov. 7, 1925, p. 8. Deffaa 1990, 18. Wilson 1968; Armstrong, Lillian 1963.

  166an article in the Defender announcing his return: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.

  166told a newspaper in Manchester, England: Scrapbook 6, LAHM.

  167“Our Own Place of Amusement”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.

  167Among South Side cabarets … “to cause complaint”: Defender, March 15, 1924; Taylor 1987, 38; Kenney 1993, 17–19. The Dreamland Café should not be confused with the Dreamland Ballroom, a white ballroom where African-American orchestras sometimes played in the 1920s. “Residents”: Defender, Oct. 18, 1924, p. 7, local edition, quoted and discussed in Kenney 1993, 19; Anderson 2007 11.

  167The word “class” … memory for decades: “to the queen’s”: Defender, June 28, 1924, p. 7. Dixon 2000, 46 and n. 12. “vulgar”: Defender, Oct. 31, 1925, p. 6, local edition. Defender, Feb. 3, 1923, p. 4; Chicago Whip, Nov. 25, 1922, p. 5; Travis 1981, 66; Armstrong, Lillian WRC 1938. Taylor 1987, 39.

  167The enterprising hero … and Bill Bottoms: “our own”: Vincent 1995, 72. Williams WRC 1970.

  168“Every now and then she’d make her breasts jump”: Taylor 1987, 40.

  168The main presentation … in large spaces: Barker IJS n.d. Armstrong (1971, 91) mentions using a megaphone at the Vendome to sing Heebie Jeebies. Hunter IJS 1976.

  168the singers circulated between tables: Hunter IJS 1976; Jabbo Smith IJS 1979; Taylor 1987, 41; Bushell in Hentoff 1962, 74.

  169In both the main presentation … night after night: “You’ve got”: Erenberg 1981, 183. Erenberg 1981, 113. Armstrong 1999, 125.

  169Singing and dancing … portion of the evening: “The entire”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM. “Restaurant”: Erenberg 1981, 215, 216–17.

  170“Now ladies and gentlemen” … trotting out a four-foot coach trumpet: “Now ladies”: Chinatown, My Chinatown. “In those”: Mezzrow 1946, 150. Kenney 1993, 50.

  170The words “eccentric” … “trick manipulations”: For interchangeable usage of “novelty” and “eccentric,” see Peyton, Defender, Feb. 27, 1926, p. 6; discussion of Armstrong’s playing as eccentric in Harker 2008; Stearns and Stearns 1994, 231–32. “Louis has promised”: Defender, Aug. 28, 1926, p. 6. “Louis has penned”: Defender, April 16, 1927, p. 6. This is the earliest known placement of Hines at the Vendome; he probably followed Teddy Weatherford’s departure.

  171“He was one of them fellas”: Compton 1956.

  171In their pathbreaking account … describe jazz musicians: Stearns and Stearns 1994, 232 and 231.

  171“has a beautifully powerful rhythmic approach”: Wilson 2001, 102–4.

  172“Behold now the days of super-speed”: “Behold now”: Drake and Cayton 1970, 78. “the new show”: Kimball and Bolcom 1973, 173. “ ‘Speed’ ”: Salem Tutt Whitney, Defender, Dec. 4, 1926, p. 7. Erenberg 1981, 211.

  173“turned out to be a very popular tune”: Armstrong 1999, 132–33.

  173Entertainers often integrated … cabaret-style comedy: McBride HJA 1959. “A show”: Cheatham 1976, 160. “the Negro comedians”: Dance 1977, 25. “The Boy”: Louis Armstrong House Museum.

  174Musicians were rarely … “a class by himself”: Hodes 1977, 10. Anderson 2007, 11. “ten deep”: Armstrong 1999, 94; Ory 1950a, 17. Clipping: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.

  174Sociologists St. Clair Drake … community was all about: Drake and Cayton 1970, 78. “Things were”: Armstrong 1946, 42.

  175Armstrong worked there: The end date is reported in the Defender, April 9, 1927, p. 6.

  175If Armstrong was embarrassed … “for that experience”: “I like”: Armstrong 1999, 95. Defender, Dec. 12, 1925, p. 7. “was my greatest”: Armstrong 1999, 29. “I wouldn’t”: Armstrong 1946, 42.

  176The timing was perfect: Mitchell CJA 1969.

  176Of all the venues … a major draw: On movie theaters, see Carbine 1996; Hennessey 1974; Kenney 1993. “We sell”: Koszarski 1990, 9.

  177African-American musicians … topped the list with fifteen: Kenney 1993, 56. Pittsburgh Courier, May 22, 1926, p. 10. Franz Jackson in Dance 1977, 248. Defender, Aug. 7, 1926, p. 7; the article is reproduced in Anderson 2007, 113; see also Carbine 1996, 41.

  177“the sensation of the time”: Defender, June 28, 1924, p. 8.

  177There were plenty … the best musicians: Altman 2004, 291, 308, and 302. Anderson 1988, xviii.

  178Riesenfeld popularized … cultural packages: A list of overtures played by Riesenfeld is given by Anderson 1988, xxiv–xxvi. “No concert”: Altman 2004, 316; see also Anderson 1988, xviii–xix.

  178What Riesenfeld did with 45 musicians: Armstrong 1999, 95; Defender, March 29, 1925, p. 7.


  178Bill Potter, writing in the Defender: Defender, Sept. 19, 1925, p. 6.

  178Tate was well suited … “band, you know”: Jackson 2005, 218; Jackson, Preston WRC n.d.; on Tate’s background, Hennessey 1974, 16. Saunders COHP 1971.

  179Musicians from New Orleans … “everything he does”: St. Cyr HJA 1958. Howland 2009, 30. Altman 2004, 303. Defender, March 6, 1926, p. 6, and April 10, 1926, p. 6. Smith 1942, 46. Armstrong 1999, 29. Shapiro and Hentoff 1955, 107. Defender, June 19, 1926, p. 6.

  180Erskine’s brother … a symphony orchestra: Scrapbook 83, LAHM; the font suggests that this clipping is from Heebie Jeebies. Armstrong 1971, 211. Armstrong 1966, 33; Hodes 1977, 80; Armstrong WRC 1939.

  180“Never [before] played” … “have any job”: Jackson 2005, 93. Altman 2004, 309. Foster 2005, 118; Brothers 2006, chap. 11. “I really”: Armstrong LAHA 1970. “I couldn’t”: Armstrong 1966, 33. Simeon HJA 1955.

  181Theaters that tried … conservatory-trained musicians: Altman 2004, 313 and 34. Anderson 1988, xxvi.

  181By the end of 1925 … the right ambition: Defender, July 3, 1926, p. 6. Armstrong 1971, 91. Brown COHP 1971.

  182A typical program of live entertainment: Regular advertisements in Heebie Jeebies.

  182“up-to-date manner”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM; on Richardson, see also Cheatham IJS 1976.

  182hardly made with African Americans in mind: The point is made—though with a poor sense of context and with too much emphasis—in Carbine 1996, 21–26.

  183Tate’s orchestra became … and newsreel to boot: Defender, July 3, 1926, p. 6. Anderson 1988, xviii.

  183Milt Hinton … as Hinton put it: Hinton IJS 1976; Kenney 1993, 126. Drake and Cayton 1970, 523. Apparently, music lessons were within easy reach of most people on the South Side. Hinton (IJS 1976) said that everyone in his community found lessons for their children, the girls on piano and the boys on violin.

  183There was apparently … in South Side Chicago: Samuels COHP 1971. This idea of “two sets of society” could be related to the division discussed by Drake and Cayton (1970, 524–25) between “respectables” and “shadies.” Seating at the Vendome, Defender, Jan. 5, 1924, p. 7.

  184Orchestras were obliged … one of them remembered: Defender, June 5 1926, p. 6. “It became”: Peretti 1992, 162–63.

  184It was a lot easier … wrote Peyton on May 14: “shouts vengeance”: Anderson 1988, xix. “eccentric stop coupling”: Dave Peyton, Defender, April 2, 1927, p. 8, and Aug. 13, 1927, p. 6. Victor Records issued two performances by Waller on organ and advertised them in the Defender (April 16, 1927, p. 3) with the comment, “Thomas Waller, popular organist, is now playing at the Vendome Theater in Chicago.” Tenure was cut short: Defender, April 30, 1927, p. 6, and May 7, p. 6. “The old organ”: Defender, May 14, 1927, p. 6.

  184Tate’s orchestra was praised … “beautiful to watch him”: Peyton: Defender April 24, 1926, p. 6. Brown COHP 1971; Randolf IJS 1977; Altman 2004, 347; Anderson 1988, xxx. Defender August 13, 1927, p. 6; Cheatham IJS 1976. Hines: Dance 1977, 35.

  185Music matched to the changing: Altman 2004, 380. Armstrong 1971, 91. Dance 1977, 35. Armstrong LAHM Tapes 295 and 96. Heebie Jeebies, May 8, 1926, p. 14.

  185“The audience were still applauding”: Armstrong 1999, 29.

  186Armstrong played it so many times: Armstrong located the theme at the Vendome in an interview from 1953 (Armstrong WRC 1953). The piece has recently been identified by Vince Giordano, as reported in Sager 2009, 149–51. Regarding the likelihood that Armstrong played the tune from memory in 1933, consider these remarks from Barney Bigard (IJS 1976): “And you’re talking about a man that can remember tunes of the past years and people of the past years. He had that memory. He was phenomenal. I’ve never seen anybody like that.”

  186the Vendome played it after the movie: Armstrong 1999, 95; see also Altman 2004, 380; Anderson 1988, xvi.

  186The repertory had nothing … remembered Hinton: Hinton IJS 1976; Simeon HJA 1955; Brown COHP 1971. Scrapbook 83, LAHM. Altman 2004, 32. Hinton IJS 1976.

  186Tate’s interpretive abilities … remembered Armstrong: Shapiro and Hentoff 1955, 107. Peyton: Defender, April 10, 1926, p. 6. Armstrong LAHM Tape 96.

  186Cavalleria rusticana … his expanding reputation: Defender, Nov. 7, 1925, p. 6. Armstrong 1966, 33.

  187Melodies from the light classics … at the Vendome: Altman 2004, 310. Armstrong 1999, 206; Hodes 1977, 81. Berrett (1992); on some of the pieces Berrett mentions, see Altman 2004, 32 and 310; Miller 2007, 19; Smith 1964, 68; Dominique HJA 1958.

  188It is possible that he was continuing lessons at Kimball Hall: The case that he took his lessons at Kimball Hall after he started work at the Vendome (rather than before he left for New York) could be built on three observations: first, Richard Jones, the source of the information, definitely knew him at this time; second, Tate had Reuben Reeves take lessons with a German music teacher when he joined the orchestra as a get-off man, and he could have made the same suggestion to Armstrong; third, Armstrong (WRC 1953) said that his experience with Tate was “better than paying money for music lessons,” suggesting a link.

  188“no more boisterous, barrel house stuff”: Armstrong 1999, 91.

  189Another special part … both always present: Armstrong 1999, 64. Armstrong 1971 91.

  190We know that … saxophonist Stump Evans: Dance 1977, 143. Cross dressing: Light and Heebie Jeebies, Jan. 8, 1927, p. 16; Tate CJA n.d. “The fans”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.

  190But his splashiest … “hundred or more patrons”: An article in the Light and Heebie Jeebies from Jan. 8, 1927, says that Armstrong “‘preached the Gospel’ some weeks ago.” A date of September 1926 is implied by the account in the Defender, Sept. 25, 1926, p. 6. Additional details from Dickerson, Killis CJA 1967. Eddie Condon (1947, 131) remembered seeing Armstrong at the Vendome “singing and ‘preaching’ as the Reverend Satchelmouth.” The feature began as an instrumental number, according to a number of sources, but it may have become a vocal one. Heebie: Scrapbook 83, LAHM; see also Ramsey and Smith 1939, 129. Defender, Sept. 25, 1926, p. 6; Scrapbook 83, LAHM; Dickerson CJA 1967.

  190Another observer explained: Dickerson CJA 1967.

  191He also discovered … knew he would: Gabbard 2008, 148. In Chicago: Elgard CJA n.d.; Armstrong LAHM 1970; Armstrong 1971, 91; Armstrong, Lillian CJA n.d.

  191He started with high F … into the high range: Armstrong LAHM 1970. Carbine 1996, 29. Armstrong 1966, 39. Dance 1977, 92.

  192To see this … this extended control: Gabbard 2008. Drew 1950, 31.

  192Armstrong was funny … of his popularity: Earl Hines worked at the Vendome after Weatherford’s departure, which happened sometime before Sept. 4, 1926 (Defender, p. 6); on Bertrand: Hinton 1988, 17. Randall COHP 1971; Tate CJA n.d. Cheatham: Deffaa 1990, 18. Armstrong 1999, 29 and 95; Hinton 1988, 17.

  193“swing tune”: Armstrong 1999, 95.

  193“followed with another surprise” Defender, Feb. 20, 1926, p. 6.

  193“could be played as a trumpet solo”: Armstrong 1999, 133.

  193The primary hot number … increasingly complex melodies: Cheatham IJS 1976. Defender, March 20, 1926, p. 6.

  194“I wanted to be able to play like Louis Armstrong”: Cheatham IJS 1976.

  195“We were in the front row”: Hampton 1993, 26.

  195Milt Hinton saw the Vendome … “making a success of it”: Hinton IJS 1976 and 1974.

  196“The Philadelphia clubwoman is ashamed”: Langston Hughes, Nation, June 23, 1926; published on the same day in the New York Amsterdam News (p. 16), the source of these quotations.

  197“white people danced”: Dixon 2000, 214.

  197Musical details were bound up … place of power: Jackson: Jones 1988, 138–39. Brothers 2006, esp. chap. 9.

  199“You’ll never be able to swing”: Armstrong 1936, 48 and 68.

  199“The common people will give”: New York Amsterdam News, June 23, 1926, p. 16.

  200“corrects the fiction that America is racist�
��: Von Eschen 2004, 17.

  200full of stimulating cross-currents: Savran 2009, 90, 94; see also Howland 2009.

  201Armstrong even impressed … the qualifier “modern”: Hinton IJS n.d.; Spivey 1984, 38. Peyton: Carbine 1996, 31; see also Defender, May 8, 1926, p. 6; June 5, 1926, p. 6; Aug. 7, 1926, p. 6; Sept. 23, 1927, p. 6. Defender, April 24, 1926, p. 6.

  201Novelist Richard Wright wrote: Berlin 2010, 29.

  202Eric Hobsbawm: Williamson 1960, 11.

  202Listening to jazz … explained the New York Clipper: DeVeaux 1989 is a good introduction to the early history of the jazz concert. “Those who”: Kenney 1993, 78–79. But as Edmund Wilson (Wilson 1958, 114) quipped in January 1926: “In sitting through a whole evening of Whiteman, we cannot always rid ourselves of the feeling—which obtrudes itself also, and to a greater degree, in the case of Vincent Lopez—that we might enjoy the music more if we were eating and talking while we listened to it.”

  203Armstrong was regarded … the jazz concert king: Peyton: Defender, Dec. 3, 1927, p. 8. Scrapbook 83, LAHM.

  204“The musicians didn’t know”: Armstrong, Lillian 1963.

  204“Pops, I don’t need no rehearsal” … early and mid-1920s: “Pops”: Hillman 1997, 10. To be precise, the comment as reported was addressed to Richard Jones regarding the sessions on Nov. 9, with Bertha “Chippie” Hill, not the sessions on Nov. 11. St. Cyr WRC 1969; St. Cyr HJA 1958; see also Anderson 2007, 240, and Smith 1964, 11.

  205“‘What are you doing, writing a letter home?”: St. Cyr HJA 1958.

  206What mattered, mainly: Kid Ory (Shapiro and Hentoff 1955, 109) said that the OKeh people “never told [Louis] what numbers they wanted or how they wanted them.” On the other hand, it was made clear that the repertory had to fit race record marketing strategies. Lillian said (CJA n.d., box 78) that she wrote My Heart as a waltz, in 3/4 meter, but that the band recorded it in 4/4 because “Rockwell wouldn’t have stood for us to spoil our reputation by playing a waltz.” Armstrong said (Armstrong 1966, 37) this about the Hot Five sessions: “it was just pick up those cats and do it. And we didn’t want no royalties, just pay me, man, give me that loot. Got $50 each for each session.”