Louis Armstrong, Master of Modernism

by Thomas Brothers

  303Their social world … “or you weren’t”: Washington COHP 1971; Singleton HJA 1969; Dance 1977. Singleton HJA 1969. Scott IJS 1979; Washington COHP 1971.

  304“Every professional musician”: Magee 2005, 161.

  304White musicians flocked: Davison CJA 1981. Hodes 1977, 13, 74; see also Hodes 1944, 7; Washington IJS; Davison CJA 1981.

  304Spanier, Stacy, Teschemacher … or with him: “Yeah”: Hodes 1977, 174. Soper CJA 1983; Davison IJS.

  304For one thing … “pretty much”: Browne COHP 1971. Kenney 1993, 33.

  305“it was just a bunch of people”: Hodes 1977, 27. Armstrong, Lillian WRC 1938; Hodes 1977, 27. Wright, Richard 1998, 273.

  305Robert Moton … “stay there”: Moton 1929, 227. Bushell 1988, 44.

  306Did he … readership was facing: Saunders COHP 1971. On whites stealing black music, see Hinton COHP 1971; Brown COHP 1971; Kenney 1993, 111; Defender, Oct. 9, 1926, p. 6, and Oct. 23, 1926, p. 6; Barker IJS; Hines COHP 1971; Dodds 1992, 63.

  307Armstrong’s experience … “really tough skin”: Barker and Hinton IJS.

  307both very fond of marijuana: Soper CJA 1983; Dance 1977, 146.

  308Marijuana usage … cost two dollars: Armstrong 1999, 112; Dance 1977, 146. Mezzrow 1947, 51, 71–74, and 92–94.

  308The recording … chuckle over the title: Old New Orleanian trick: Howard, Paul WRC 1969. House parties: Cheatham IJS 1976.

  308Armstrong spent … lay there, grinning: Scrapbook 83, LAHM. Jackson 2005, 87; Armstrong 1999, 100.

  308Basketball … home in bed: Armstrong 1999, 100. Armstrong LAHM Tape 202.

  309In September … $1 at the door: Defender, Sept. 15, 1928, p. 6; Ramsey 1939, 137; Singleton WRC ca. 1938; Dance 1977, 146; Singleton IJS 1975. Russell 1999, 486; Singleton HJA 1969; Armstrong, Lillian WRC 1969. Scrapbook 83, LAHM; Afro-American, Dec. 1, 1928.

  309Armstrong said … “ ‘Zuttyface’ ”: Armstrong 1999, 74; Hinton IJS 1976. Dance 1977, 80, 143. Browne COHP 1971; Hines COHP 1971. Cheatham IJS 1976.

  310not really trained in blues: Taylor 1993, 35.

  311“Earl is a very difficult person to play with”: Dance 1977, 290; see also Wilson 2001, 102–4.

  311What is especially … another direction: “Poor old”: Peretti 1992, 117. Foster 2005, 198.

  311But with Hines … in early jazz: Taylor 1993, 216. Jeffrey Taylor argues (personal communication) that the standard discographical entry for these solo sessions—Dec. 8—is almost certainly incorrect. More likely, the sessions took place earlier. Taylor (1993, chap. 6) gives a good discussion of these pieces, with excellent transcriptions; see also Taylor 1992, esp. p. 71, with transcription and discussion of Savoyagers’ Stomp.

  312The two of them … “the closer you become”: “We were”: Dance 1977, 52; see also Dance 1977 183; Freeman 1994, 121; Hines 2005, 151. See Taylor 1992 for precise discussion of Armstrong’s influence on Hines. Anita O’Day: Leonard 1989, 29.

  313There are many examples: See, for example, Taylor 1993, 152, for transcription and analysis of Sweethearts on Parade and pp. 153–58 for Skip the Gutter.

  313Hines made it clear: Taylor 1998, 22.

  314it would have surprised everyone involved: Taylor 1993, 160.

  314“Louis had some ideas”: Taylor 1998, 22.

  315Armstrong carries the lead: Taylor (1993 and 1998) cites many instances of these kinds of fleeting connections. For a fine example, see p. 263 of Taylor 1993, mm. 2–4 of C3. Note that it is Hines who generates the effect, as he does throughout the piece, with Armstrong more or less stating his lead and Hines commenting and providing the conversational glue.

  315This is the kind of moment: This could have been a mistake, of course. The moment recalls one of the most famous misentries in jazz, Count Basie’s entrance in a break designed for Lester Young in Lester Leaps In. See Schuller 1989, 249–50.

  317That musicians hold powers … Tight Like This: Smith 1964, 53. Billy Eckstine: Dance 1977, 241. For other discussions of Armstrong and sexuality, see Gabbard 2008 and 1995; Raeburn 2004. On the general topic of jazz and sexuality, see Tucker 2000; Smith 2008; DeVeaux 1997, 103; Wilmer 1977. Additional primary sources include Singleton IJS 1975; Deffaa 1990, 37; Bushell 1988, 46.

  317James Baldwin insisted … sex is irrelevant: Baldwin 1961, 188. Mailer 1970.

  318“Ever since I was a little boy”: Armstrong 1999, 95; on the masculine world of Armstrong’s teens, see Brothers 2006, chap. 9.

  318What got the ladies … “makes you produce jazz”: Hines COHP 1971. Johnson: Davin 1995, 332; Williams 1962, 57–61. Smith 1964, 118. Cootie Williams: Wilmer 1977, 199.

  318Percussionist Art Lewis … in 1938: Lewis: Leonard 1987, 59. Armstrong 1999, 95, 99.

  319Apparently, things weren’t … “that’s my life”: Armstrong 1999, 97. Millstein n.d.

  319His nephew Clarence: Armstrong 1946, 41; Armstrong 1999, 89.

  319It was a comic number: Armstrong 1999, 134. Spousal-abuse songs like this were not uncommon during this period. Percy Grainger made a specialty of them, with You’ve Got to Beat Me to Keep Me, Tain’t Nobody’s Business If I Do, and Mistreatin’ Daddy.

  320As a child … according to Armstrong: “That taught”: Armstrong 1999, 60 and 95. Raeburn 2004, 12.

  321“poor girl, not near as fortunate as Lil”: Armstrong 1995, 95.

  321“I became” … Tight Like This: Armstrong 1995, 95. Dorsey CJA n.d.

  322“It is only within the last two or three years”: Osgood 1926, 249.

  323“fucking rhythm”: Gabbard 1996, 143, and 1995, 110.

  323“eccentric piano”: Defender, Oct. 6, 1928, p. 6, giving Hill’s address at 457 East 47th Street and reporting that he is playing in a band led by Jimmy Wade.

  324The Light announced the wedding: Light, June 23, 1928, front cover; see also Defender, May 26, 1928, p. 7, and June 23, 1928, p. 6. On Marshall “Garbage” Rodgers, see also Scrapbook 83, LAHM; Courier, July 28, 1928, p. A2; Aug. 18, 1928, p. A1; Afro-American, Sept. 15, 1928, p. 9; Jan. 31, 1929, p. 9. Other references to the phrase: Defender, Sept. 29, 1928, p. 7; Oct. 20, 1928, p. 7; Dec. 6, 1930, p. 15; Afro-American, Oct. 5, 1929, p. A14. The wedding event was apparently problematic; see Light, July 14, 1928, p. 2. A scrapbook reference (item 25) refers to Armstrong performing Heah Me over the radio, which probably places the performance at the Savoy. The recording was advertised quickly, in a January 1929 issue of the Afro-American.

  Chapter 8: The White Turn

  326“Honey, colored people”: Bernhardt 1986, 165.

  326“You follow the people”: Huggins 1995, 338.

  326“one of the swellest white night clubs”: Defender, Oct. 13, 1928, p. 6; Herndon 1964, 72–73.

  326As impressive … their shared apartment: Defender, Oct. 23, 1926, p. 6. Feather 1970, 35; Jackson 2005 196; Armstrong 1950a, 26.

  326It was even possible … say to Hines: Light and Heebie Jeebies, April 28, 1928, p. 14. Union: Spivey 1984, 39; see also Banks 1980, 227–28. South: Hinton IJS 1976; Hinton IJS 1974. Hines COHP 1971.

  327he was not alone: Bud Freeman (IJS n.d.): “Now we in jazz do not use categories. We do not put people into categories… . We don’t call a man a modern drummer or an avant garde drummer or a dixieland drummer. A man can either play or he cannot. This is what it’s about and only musicians know this, not critics, I’m sorry to say.”

  327The appreciation … in October 1928: Surfing: Washington CJA 1965. Lombardo: Dance 1977, 63.

  328When the Regal … Plantation and Sunset: Light, Feb. 11, 1928, p. 2; see also Feb. 25, 1928, p. 4. Hinton and Berger 1988, 27. Defender, April 7, 1928, p. 6. Peyton was hired to do the original contracting for the Regal; CJA Steiner Collection, box 87, article “The Fess Williams Story.”

  329A review of his performance: Scrapbook 83, LAHM. The undated article references an upcoming visit to Cincinnati, which is probably the one that took place on May 17, thus providing a terminus ante quem for the article.

  329It is no surprise … until now: Peterso
n 1993, 37. Composer credit for I Can’t Give You Anything went to Dorothy Fields and Jimmy McHugh, but it has been argued that Fats Waller was the actual composer; see Givan 2004, 213, n. 24; see also Winer 1997, 26–37. Advertisement in Interstate Tattler, Feb. 29, 1929, p. 10. Recordings include Red Nichols (May 1928), Martha Copeland (May 1928), Paul Whiteman (June 1928), Ben Selvin (June 1928), Annette Hanshaw (July 1928), Abe Lyman (November 1928).

  329The visit was organized: Armstrong (1999, 100) explained it this way: “So I was still signed up to the OKeh Record Co. But Mr. Fern turned my Contract over to Mr. Tommy Rockwell whom was stationed in New York. And at the same time Mr. Fagan was coming up short with our money, Mr. Rockwell sent for me to come to New York immediately to make some records and also book me into a show called ‘Great Day’ produced by Vincent Youmans.” It is possible that the Savoy Ballroom of Harlem sponsored the visit. Armstrong’s performance there was announced in the Interstate Tattler as early as Feb. 22, 1929, p. 11.

  331Ethel Waters parodied him: Freeman 1970, 17; Carmichael 1999a, 202; Cheatham quoted in Goddard 1979, 292. See also Douglas 1995, 336.

  332Kaiser Marshall remembered: Marshall 1943, 85.

  332Rockwell used the Luis Russell Orchestra: Singleton IJS 1975.

  332The rhythm section … of those qualities: Foster: Russell 1994, 106. “Jazz is”: Foster 2005, 90.

  333This brief visit … weeks in a row: Defender, March 16, 1929, p. 6, and March 23, 1929, p. 4; Holmes IJS n.d. Armstrong 1999, 100; Armstrong 1966, 38. Chicago Tribune, April 29, 1929, p. 28; April 30, 1929, p. 36; May 2, 1929, p. 34. Early May also included a brief trip to Cincinnati for a one-night stand on May 7 at the Paradise Ballroom. The hall was so jammed that there was no room to dance, “but the crowd was happy to listen to the wonderful music,” reported the Defender (May 25, 1929, p. 6).

  333In fact … headed for New York City: On the Plantation, Defender, March 24, 1928, p. 6. What the Light repeatedly called the “Carroll years” was a reference to citywide crackdowns on cabarets and their relentless bootlegging. Hines: Dance 1977, 52; Levin 1985, 195. “Could I have”: Davison CJA 1981. Hennessey 1974, 30; Hinton IJS n.d.; Anderson 1988, xliii. Headed for New York: Leonard 1962, 105; Mezzrow 1946, 164; Jones 1988, 134; Kenney 1993, chap. 6; Bud Freeman IJS n.d.

  334His next move: On the movie, Defender, April 13, 1929, p. 6.

  334They decided … she once admitted: Armstrong 1999, 100 and 105; Armstrong 1946, 43. Singleton WRC ca. 1938. Recital: Scrapbook 83, LAHM; Defender, May 25, 1929, p. 6; Barrett 2004, 73. According to the Defender of June 15, 1929 (p. 6), Lillian planned to pay “a short visit” on Louis in New York soon, and on June 8 the Defender reported that she had supervised “the costumes, the stage settings and the music” for a recital of the Mary Bruce Dancing school in Chicago. Armstrong, Lillian IJS n.d.

  334the musicians wound their way: Accounts of the trip: Singleton 1950; Jones and Chilton 1971, 103; Armstrong 1946, 43; Ramsey 1946, 33; Armstrong 1999, 105; Singleton WRC ca. 1938.

  335An irritated Rockwell … the fall of 1924: Armstrong 1946, 43. “the decision”: Jones and Chilton 1971, 103. Magee 2005, 121.

  335stopped by the Rhythm Club: Amsterdam News, March 6, 1929, p. 7, for “negotiations” with Aaron Douglas to decorate; opening cited Defender, March 16, 1929, p. 6; April 27, 1929, p. 6; July 13, 1929, p. 6. Singleton WRC ca. 1938.

  335“caste system”: Magee 2005, 30; Barker IJS, 3–22; Howland 2009, 21.

  336Several musicians left … bantering back and forth: Danny Barker in Williams 1962; Barker 1986, 113–19; Smith WRC 1970; Smith 1964, 159; Higgenbotham IJS; Singleton HJA 1969; Nicholas WRC 1970; Hinton IJS 1976.

  336The first job Armstrong and the Dickerson band landed: Singleton 1950; Singleton WRC ca. 1938; Singleton IJS 1975.

  337Next the band opened … white audiences for him: Singleton WRC ca. 1938. The Defender (June 22, 1929, p. 6) reported that Armstrong and the Dickerson band were to begin work at Connie’s on June 24.

  337Clyde Bernhardt: Bernhardt 1986, 64.

  338“heat wave”: Hughes 1986, 226–27; Lewis 1979, 162–63; Huggins 1995, 339.

  338“spellbound”: Howland 2009, 231.

  338The Cotton Club … “there’s no mixing”: Huggins 1995, 339; see also Waters 1951, 34. “Nobody wants”: Lewis 1979, 209.

  338“crafty night people”: Barker 1986, 134–38; Barker IJS.

  338The familiar primitivist package … dark and exotic: Johnson: Erenberg 1981, 233. Durante: Lewis 1979, 208.

  339It was the familiar mix … were asleep : “The whole”: Saul 2003, 37; Calloway 1976, 121 and 178. Erenberg 1981, 255.

  339Connie’s Inn … Lafayette Theater: Armstrong 1936, 89. Bernhardt 1986, 70.

  339Locals gathered in the alley: Mezzrow 1946, 208.

  340The assignment … “among Negro women”: Amsterdam News, June 26, 1929, p. 13; Armstrong 1999, 105; Mezzrow 1946, 209. Afro-American, Sept. 28, 1929, p. A8.

  340Armstrong characterized as a slow fox trot: Armstrong 1999, 105.

  341The crowds … “Musicians of New York”: Smith 1964, 170; Dixon 2000, 100. Defender, Aug. 10, 1929, p. 6; Armstrong 1999, 105.

  341Connie Immerman … made his mark: “a little fat guy”: Quentin Jackson IJS 1976. Singer 1992, 2.

  341“All-colored” shows: Waters 1951, 217; Stearns 1994, 140–42; Woll 1989, 112 and 136.

  341When Rudolf Fisher … “some good comedy”: Howland 2009, 23. Hughes 1986, 223. Stearns and Stearns 1994, 134; Goddard 1979, 290. “Just enough”: Miller 2007, 37.

  342Shuffle Along’s combination … to be illiterate: Kimball and Bolcom 1973, 133 and 116; Savran 2009, 124. Blake: Savran 2009, 121.

  342Shuffle Along was packed … during the 1920s: Interstate Tattler, June 14, 1929, p. 16. Stearns and Stearns 1994, 133. Blake: Huggins 1995, 337.

  343Black patrons … exclusionary practices: Interstate Tattler, June 28, 1929, p. 9. Stearns and Stearns 1994, 141.

  343whites did not go to theaters: Though some came close; see Woll 1989, 109.

  343For while the music … “on a bet”: “You see”: Kimball and Bolcom 1973, 238. White critic: Kimball and Bolcom 1973, 180.

  344“Jimmy Johnson had the band lay out”: Bradford 1965, 137; see also Gilbert Seldes quoted in Spring 1993, 210.

  345“The two greatest Negro songs”: Woll 1989, 97 and 112; Peterson 1993, 272.

  345With Blackbirds of 1928 … Immerman’s Hot Chocolates: Woll 1989, 124; Stearns and Stearns 1994, 149–55 and 181. Mills: Variety, June 26, 1929, p. 55; Woll 1989, 131.

  345Immerman hired … a cast of 85: Interstate Tattler, Feb. 22, 1929, p. 11; Variety, June 26, 1929, p. 55; Amsterdam News, May 29, 1929, p. 12. The Defender (June 15, 1929, p. 6) reported that Ethel Waters was “engaged” to star in Hot Chocolates, but her appearance apparently did not come to pass. Stearns and Stearns 1994, 153; Variety, June 26, 1929, p. 55.

  345“It is distinctly” … graceful adagio routine: Variety, June 26, 1929, p. 55. For other reviews emphasizing dancing, see Amsterdam News, June 26, 1929, p. 13; Afro-American, June 29, 1929, p. 9. “every muscle”: Afro-American, June 29, 1929, p. 9. Cook: Interstate Tattler, June 28, 1929, p. 9; Afro-American, Sept. 28, 1929, p. A8; Scrapbook 83, LAHM (handwritten “New York Evening Graphic Oct. 31, 1929”). Calloway: Courier, Nov. 23, 1929, p. A3; Travis 1981, 224. “Not only”: Interstate Tattler, June 28, 1929, p. 9, and June 14, 1929, p. 16; Defender, June 15, 1929, p. 6.

  346“The dancing” … the Evening Graphic: Interstate Tattler, June 28, 1929, p. 9; Norfolk Journal and Guide, July 13, 1929, p. 9; Variety, June 26, 1929, p. 55; July 31, 1929, p. 54. “Blacker than”: Variety, July 31, 1929, p. 54. Scrapbook 83, LAHM (handwritten “New York Evening Graphic Oct. 31, 1929”).

  346lewd double entendres: Interstate Tattler, June 28, 1929, p. 9; Afro-American, June 29, 1929, p. 13; Interstate Tattler, June 14, 1929, p. 16.

  346“The show in the Hudson” … Blackbirds of 1928: Amsterdam News, June 26, 1929, p. 13. Mezzrow: Shap
iro and Hentoff 1955, 256. Armstrong 1936, 91. Variety, June 26, 1929, p. 55; Woll 1989, 132.

  347At the Hudson … sing between acts: People hung: Trail 1971, 3. Dunn: Williams 1979, 83 (Bushell) and 98 (Redman); see also The Official Theatrical World of Colored Artists 1928 (WRC MSS 519, folder 81), which has a large display ad for Johnny Dunn, reading, in part, “Creator of the WahWah/Sensation for ‘Blackbirds’ European Tour.” Smith also sang in Pansy, in May 1929, from the stage as herself; Peterson 1993, 180 and 267; Stearns and Stearns 1994, 153.

  347“decided sensation”: Interstate Tattler, June 28, 1929, p. 9, and Sept. 6, 1929, p. 11; Afro-American, Sept. 28, 1929, p. A9.

  348Armstrong once described … Bessie Smith: “On the first”: Collier 1983, 287. Gillespie 1979, 303.

  350In an insightful … “for the public”: Giddins 2001, 9. Armstrong 1966, 41.

  350“Bo’s face” … films and fortune: Stearns and Stearns 1994, 188 and 156.

  350“He always did things in eight bars”: Al Minns quoted in Stearns and Stearns 1994, 187.

  351Armstrong complained: Jones and Chilton 1971, 86.

  351“The best scenes”: Woll 1989, 119.

  352“When you get people relaxed”: Gillespie quoted in Leonard 1986, 154. And consider Ralph Ellison, writing about the role of laughter as an immediate way to defuse tension: “If you can laugh at me, you don’t have to kill me.” O’Meally 2003, 124.

  352the first lines of the verse: Singer 1992, 217.

  353“Lokka here, my Man Tan’s coming off!”: King 1967, 65.

  353“Way I sing it now “: Armstrong 1966, 42.

  354Ellison framed it in Invisible Man: Ellison 1947, 6–10.

  354reception history of Black and Blue: Katz 2004, 14.

  354One critic found … “the things I was doing”: Variety, June 26, 1929, p. 55; Interstate Tattler, Aug. 9, 1929, p. 11. Armstrong 1966, 40.

  355At Connie’s … happened in print: Defender, Aug. 24, 1929, p. A3. Amsterdam News, June 26, 1929, p. 12.

  355He tripled up there: Amsterdam News, June 19, 1929, p. 13.

  355seminudity: Dixon 2000, 79.

  355John Bubbles … Willie “The Lion” Smith: Bubbles IJS n.d. “In Harlem”: Dixon 2000, 79. Smith 1964, 196.