Moral Origins
Page 40
17. See Noss and Hewlett 2001; see also Mirsky 1937.
18. See Burroughs 2005.
19. See Stanford 1999.
20. See Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 1991.
21. See Blurton Jones 1991.
22. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
23. See Wrangham 1999.
24. See Watts and Mitani 2002.
25. See Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 1991 and Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 2000.
26. See Byrne 1993 for an assessment of empathy in other primates.
27. See Stanford 1999.
28. See Hohmann and Fruth 1993.
29. See Hrdy 2009.
30. See Kelly 1995.
31. See Peterson 1993.
32. See ibid.
33. See Winterhalder 2001.
34. See Winterhalder and Smith 1981; see also Winterhalder 2001.
35. See Winterhalder and Smith 1981.
36. See Kaplan and Hill 1985.
37. See Boehm 1982.
38. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
39. See Beyene 2010.
40. See Klein 1999.
41. See ibid.
42. See ibid.
43. See ibid.
44. See Thieme 1997.
45. See Stiner 2002.
46. See Boehm 1999.
47. See Ellis 1995.
48. See Nishida 1996.
49. See Goodall 1992.
50. See Parker 2007.
51. See Kano 1992.
52. The philosopher Karl Popper judges theories by their “falsifiability,” which means that they must be couched in terms that are susceptible of testing. In doing so, he makes some special allowances for the uniqueness of Darwinian explanations, which in their larger aspects are testable mainly in terms of their general plausibility in competition with other explanations. See Popper 1978.
53. See Campbell 1975.
54. See Whallon 1989.
55. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
56. See Stiner 2002.
57. See Hawks et al. 2000.
58. See Bunn and Ezzo 1993; see also Speth 1989.
59. See Boehm 2004b; see also Hawkes 2001.
60. See Whallon 1989; see also Knauft 1991.
61. See Pericot 1961.
62. See Kelly 2000.
63. See Lee 1979; see also Kelly 2005.
64. See Knauft 1991.
65. See Stiner et al. 2009.
66. See Klein 1999.
67. See Boehm 2004b; see also Boehm 1982 and Boehm 2000.
68. See Kelly 1995.
69. See Eldredge 1971.
70. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
71. For a broad evolutionary view of problem solving, see Dewey 1934. John Dewey’s views on evolution have yet to receive the attention they deserve.
72. See Wilson 1978.
73. See West-Eberhard 1983.
74. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
75. See Fisher 1930; see also Nesse 2000 and Nesse 2007.
76. See Campbell 1965; see also Campbell 1975.
77. See Trivers 1971. In this seminal article sociobiologist Robert Trivers led the way, not only in considering moralistic aggression as a force that acted on human gene pools, but also in analyzing pairwise cooperation from both a genetic and a psychological perspective.
78. See Alexander 1979 and Alexander 1987.
79. See West-Eberhard 1979 and West-Eberhard 1983.
80. See, for instance, Wiessner 1996 for her most recent treatment of !Kung safety nets.
81. See Alexander 1987, 94.
82. See Otterbein 1988.
83. See Wrangham 2001; see also Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
84. See Boehm 1999, 253–254.
85. See Voland and Voland 1995.
86. My Unitarian mother wanted me to make my own choices about religion, so she sent me to a variety of Sunday schools.
87. See Haile 1978.
88. See Haidt 2007.
89. See Haidt 2003.
90. See Greene 2003.
91. See Alexander 1987.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 7: THE POSITIVE SIDE OF SOCIAL SELECTION
1. See Alexander 1979 and Alexander 1987.
2. See Trivers 1972.
3. See Campbell 1975; see also Neusner and Chilton 2009.
4. See Sullivan 1989.
5. See Campbell 1975.
6. See Alexander 1987.
7. See Boehm 1986.
8. See Durkheim 1933.
9. See Gurven et al. 2000.
10. See de Waal 2009; see also Flack and de Waal 2000 and Hrdy 2009.
11. See Kelly 1995.
12. See Balikci 1970.
13. See Wilson 1999.
14. See Zahavi 1995.
15. See ibid.
16. See Darwin 1982 (1871); see also Zahavi 1995.
17. See, for instance, Lee 1979.
18. See Keeley 1988; see also Kelly 1995.
19. Frank Marlowe, at Cambridge University in England, has already published on this basis. See Marlowe 2005. Kim Hill, at the University of Arizona at Tempe, is also working with a sizable database. See Hill et al. 2011. These databases focus on subsistence techniques and main features of social organization.
20. See Campbell 1972 and Campbell 1975; see also Brown 1991.
21. See Campbell 1975.
22. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
23. See Boehm 2008b.
24. See Alexander 1987.
25. See ibid.
26. See Marlowe 2005.
27. See Balikci 1970.
28. The analogy comes to mind because I once observed a Hopi Snake Dance, where the small desert rattlers that dancers carried in their mouths had secretly had their fangs removed. I didn’t know about it at the time, and this lack of knowledge contributed to an extreme case of culture shock on my part because a young dancer was “bitten” repeatedly on the cheek and the other dancers were simply taking this for granted.
29. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
30. See Johnson and Krüger 2004; see also Wade 2009.
31. See Johnson and Krüger 2004.
32. See Dawkins 1976, Ridley 1996, and Wright 1994.
33. See Ghiselin 1974.
34. See Boehm 1999.
35. See Ghiselin 1974, 247.
36. See Panchanathan and Boyd 2004.
37. See, for example, Fehr and Gächter 2002.
38. See Henrich et al. 2005.
39. See Boyd et al. 2003; see also Fehr 2004, Fehr and Gächter 2002, Kollock 1998, Panchanathan and Boyd 2004, and Price et al. 2002.
40. See Guala in press; see also Boehm in press.
41. See Lee 1979.
42. See Boehm 2011.
43. See West-Eberhard 1979.
44. See Boehm 1982; see also Alexander 1987.
45. See Zahavi 1995; see also Bird et al. 2001.
46. See Hrdy 2009.
47. See Boehm 2004a.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 8: LEARNING MORALS ACROSS THE GENERATIONS
1. See Turnbull 1961.
2. See Durkheim 1933.
3. See, for instance, Elkin 1994.
4. See Coser 1956.
5. See Boehm 1999.
6. See Boehm 1983 and Boehm 1986.
7. For the Bushmen, see, for instance, Lee 1979, Heinz 1994, and Silberbauer 1981. For the Inuit, see, for instance, Balikci 1970 and Briggs 1970.
8. See Thomas 1989, Lee 1979, Wiessner 1982, Wiessner 2002, and Draper 1978.
9. See Shostak 1981.
10. See Rasmussen 1931 and Balikci 1970.
11. See Briggs 1970.
12. See Briggs 1998.
13. See Parsons and Shils 1952.
14. See Simon 1990.
15. See Gintis 2003.
16. See Waddington 1960 and Campbell 1975.
17. See, for instance, Eisenberg 2006 and Turiel 2005; see also Konner 2010.
18. See Kagan 1981; see also Kagan and Lamb 1987.
19. See Campbell 1975.
20. Robert Kelly published this ex
ample in his comprehensive 1995 book on hunter-gatherers. See also Leacock 1969.
21. See Leacock 1969, 13–14.
22. See Stephenson 2000.
23. See Westermarck 1906.
24. See ibid., 118.
25. See Draper 1978, 42; italics added.
26. See Whiting and Whiting 1975.
27. See Boehm 1972; see also Boehm 1980.
28. See Gallup et al. 2002.
29. See ibid., and Kagan and Lamb 1987.
30. See, for example, Warneken et al. 2007, which compares spontaneous altruism in human children and in young chimpanzees.
31. See Greene 2007. To explain further, the experiments involve a subject’s having to choose between passively letting five persons die in a runaway trolley and actively killing a sixth person to save the other five. In the first hypothetical scenario, you merely throw a switch so that the trolley will run into a bystander on the track, which saves the five passengers’ lives; in the second you involve yourself much more actively by pushing the fat guy off a bridge so that he falls in the path of the trolley and stops it.
32. See Briggs 1994.
33. See Briggs 1982, 118–119.
34. See ibid., 120–121.
35. See ibid., 121.
36. See Boehm 1989 and Boehm 1999.
37. See Briggs 1998.
38. See Hewlett and Lamb 2006.
39. See Konner 2010.
40. See ibid.
41. The quotations on pages 228–233 are taken from Shostak 1981, 46–57.
42. See ibid., 56.
43. See Durham 1991.
44. See, for instance, Freud 1918.
45. See, for instance, Wilson 1975.
46. See Konner 2010.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 9: WORK OF THE MORAL MAJORITY
1. See Haviland 1977.
2. See Wiessner 2005a and Wiessner 2005b.
3. The Aleuts executed serious gossips whose words were harming their communities. See Jones 1969.
4. See Boehm 1986.
5. See Bogardus 1933 and Boehm 1985.
6. See Lee 1979.
7. See Briggs 1970.
8. See ibid.
9. See Boehm 1999, 57–58.
10. This extreme form of ostracism was mentioned in Table IV, page 198.
11. See Boehm 1985.
12. See Durham 1991.
13. See Haidt 2007.
14. See Westermarck 1906.
15. See Wolf and Durham 2004.
16. See Goodall 1986.
17. See Cantrell 1994.
18. See Balikci 1970, 191.
19. See Thomas 1989.
20. See Knauft 1991.
21. See Lee 1979.
22. See ibid., 372–373.
23. See Boehm 2011 and Knauft 1991.
24. See Fry 2000; see also von Furer-Haimendorf 1967 and Knauft 1991.
25. See Lee 1979.
26. See Boehm 2004b. Subsequently, Polly Wiessner explained to me exactly how this works with the Bushmen.
27. See Lee 1979.
28. See Draper 1978, 46.
29. See van den Steenhoven 1957, van den Steenhoven 1959, and van den Steenhoven 1962.
30. See Balikci 1970, 195–196.
31. See ibid.
32. See Lee 1979.
33. See Balikci 1970.
34. See Knauft 1991.
35. See Boehm 2007 and Boehm 2011.
36. See Lee 1979.
37. See ibid., 394–395.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 10: PLEISTOCENE UPS, DOWNS, AND CRASHES
1. See Balikci 1970.
2. Actually, there are fourteen separate body parts that can be exchanged in this way, but only seven of them involve long-term partnerships. See ibid.
3. See ibid.
4. See, for instance, Binford 1978.
5. See Balikci 1970.
6. See Lee 1979.
7. See Briggs 1970.
8. See Peterson 1993.
9. Again, see Sober and Wilson 1998 for a discussion of this important phenomenon. See also Boehm 2004a.
10. See Peterson 1993.
11. See Keely 1988.
12. See Gould 1982.
13. See, for instance, Balikci 1970.
14. See Laughlin and Brady 1978.
15. See Testart 1982.
16. See, for instance, Balikci 1970.
17. Leibig’s Law of the Minimum is often cited without further attribution. Actually, Baron Justis von Leibig merely popularized the idea of Karl Phillip Sprengel, a German agronomist who came up with the idea that the most scarce element in an environment would limit the success of a species. For instance, in a serious drought, this would be water. See Sprengel 1839.
18. See Hawks et al. 2000.
19. See Bowles 2006.
20. See Burroughs 2005.
21. See Balikci 1970.
22. See ibid.
23. See ibid.
24. See Gould 1982.
25. See Keeley 1988.
26. See Potts 1996.
27. See Boehm 1996.
28. See Balikci 1970.
29. See Peterson 1993.
30. See Shostak 1981, 44.
31. See ibid.
32. Quotes from Nisa on pages 282–288 taken from Shostak 46–54.
33. See Shostak 1981, 323.
34. See Wiessner 1982.
35. See Lorenz 1966.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 11: TESTING THE SELECTION-BY-REPUTATION HYPOTHESIS
1. See also de Waal 2008 and de Waal 2009.
2. See Gurven et al. 2000, 266; see also Gurven 2004.
3. See Gurven et al. 2000.
4. See also Woodburn 1982.
5. See Bird et al. 2001; see also Hawkes 1991 and Smith 2004.
6. Hawkes 1991, for example, emphasizes this in evaluating consequences of hunting success.
7. See Kelly 1995, 164–165; see also Bird-David 1992 and Myers 1988.
8. See Marlowe 2004.
9. See Woodburn 1979.
10. For the Hadza, see ibid.
11. See Shostak 1981, 116.
12. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
13. See Hill et al. 2011. Actually, a total of thirty-two foraging societies were sampled, of which about a third fit the technical criteria used here for being “Late Pleistocene appropriate or LPA.”
14. See ibid.
15. An exception is that as currently defined, kin selection and group selection appear to have overlapping applications because costly acts of generosity within groups of kin can be explained by either model. Alexander’s consideration of group-level selection taking place within kin units reflected this ambiguity. See, for instance, Wilson and Sober 1994 and Sober and Wilson 1998. A type of group selection that also could be affecting the social behaviors that are influencing genetic outcomes is cultural group selection. See Richerson and Boyd 1999.
16. See Boehm 1993 for a study that identifies qualifications for being chosen as a leader in egalitarian societies.
17. See Alexander 1987; see also Marlowe 2010, Figure 7.4.
18. See Wiessner 1982 and Wiessner 2002.
19. See Wilson and Dugatkin 1997.
20. Assortative mating is a major field of study for humans and other species, the idea being that individuals may choose as mates others who are similar physically or behaviorally. In this context, Wilson and Dugatkin 1997, have explored the possibility that altruists might be choosing other altruists (see also Hamilton 1975); their interest is in looking at group selection with respect to whether assortative choices could be enhancing the strength of group effects by increasing between-group variation, whereas my interest here is in whether such effects could be empowering selection by reputation that takes place within a group.
21. It doesn’t matter if the signal is costly or not. For instance, if two hard-working individuals choose each other, the signals are noncostly, but they are good indicators of superior genetic quality. If two altruists join up, the signals do have costs, but over time these costs will be mu
tually compensated because their cooperation will outclass the cooperation of a stingy pair.
22. See Fisher 1930. See also Nesse 2007 and Nesse 2010, who has discussed runaway selection in the specific case of altruism in humans and has emphasized its likely importance.
23. See Alexander 2005, 337–338.
24. See Mirsky 1937.
25. See Williams 1966.
26. See Tiger 1979.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 12: THE EVOLUTION OF MORALS
1. See Mayr 1983 and Mayr 2001.
2. See Boehm and Flack 2010 and Laland et al. 2010.
3. See Midgley 1994, 118–119.
4. See Klein 1999. It is worth noting that power scavenging could have produced enormous whole carcasses with a surfeit of meat, but also “leftovers” with only enough meat for higher-ranking individuals if they were aggressively eating their fill.
5. See Campbell 1972 and Campbell 1975.
6. See Huxley 1894 and Spencer 1851.
7. See Nietzsche 1887.
8. See Breasted 1933.
9. The original date of publication for this precocious work was 1906.
10. See ibid.
11. See Wilson 1975.
12. See Wilson 1978.
13. See Ridley 1996.
14. See Wright 1994.
15. See Wilson 1993.
16. See Shermer 2004.
17. See Mayr 1988 and Mayr 1997; see also Wilson and Sober 1994 and Sober and Wilson 1998.
18. See Hauser 2006.
19. See Katz 2000.
20. See Flack and de Waal 2000; see also Preston and de Waal 2002.
21. See Boehm 2000.
22. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
23. See Sober and Wilson 2000.
24. See Skyrms 2000.
25. But see Dubreuil 2010.
26. See Krebs 2000.
27. See Rapoport and Chammah 1965.
28. See Frank 1988.
29. See Fehr and Gächter 2004; see also Fehr et al. 2008.
30. See Bowles and Gintis 2004.
31. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles and Gintis 2011.
32. See Bowles 2009; see also Keely 1996 and Kelly 2000.
33. See, for instance, Mithen 1990.
34. I thank Frans de Waal for a discussion of this matter.
35. See, for instance, Nowak et al. 2010 and Wilson and Wilson 2007.
36. See Campbell 1975.
37. On Hutterite communities, see Sober and Wilson 1998.
38. See Hrdy 2009.
39. Chimpanzees gang up against leopards. See Boesch 1991 and Byrne and Byrne 1988. I also have a videotape of a sixteen-foot python being harassed by the Gombe chimpanzees. It seems likely that bonobos have a similar mobbing capacity, but with far less field study, this has not been witnessed so far.