Neither Peace nor Freedom: The Cultural Cold War in Latin America
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Conte Agüero, Luis, 125
Cortázar, Julio, 143, 207
Cosío Villegas, Daniel, 197, 217
“Cosmopolitanism,” 51, 56–59, 64, 70, 77, 80
Costa Amic, Bartolomeu, 43–44, 109
Coutinho, Afrânio, 181, 184–185
Cuadernos, 85, 94, 98, 174, 186, 189–190, 209–210, 213, 215–216, 225–226, 241; and the coup in Guatemala, 101; lack of influence, 109–111, 186, 189–190, 204–205, 213; and the Cuban Revolution, 118, 128, 141; and criticism of U.S. policy, 203–204, 241–242; circulation figures, 310n11
Cuevas, José Luis, 114, 202, 285n58
Cultural Cold War, 3, 5–7, 21–22, 47–48, 235–238; in Latin America, 8–10, 13–18, 205, 211–212; and the CCF, 62, 84–85, 94–95; and the WPC, 64; and the Cuban Revolution, 140; and the MLN, 147–148, 173; and the Black Legend, 239
Cultural diplomacy, 3, 11–12, 255n20
Dalton, Roque, 8, 230, 313n32
“Democratic Left.” See Anti-Communist Left
Dependency theory, 176–177
Dewey, John, 37–38, 45, 88
Dies Committee, 40–41, 84
Donoso, José, 198
Dorticós, Osvaldo, 134, 137, 160
Dos Passos, John, 58, 102–103, 263n38
Draper, Theodore, 118, 141, 204
Dumont, René, 222
Edwards, Jorge, 92, 206, 228–229
Ehrenburg, Ilya, 35, 57
“El Siglo XX: La Experiencia de la Libertad” conference, 232–234
Encounter, 88, 109–110, 118, 141, 187, 191, 203–204, 213, 230
“End of ideology,” 102, 193–194, 281n35
Fadeyev, Alexander, 58–59, 62, 73
Farfield Foundation, 94, 187, 189, 208, 304n31
Fernández Retamar, Roberto, 140, 176, 201–206, 222; and Calibán, 223–226
Figueres, José, 96, 106, 129, 134, 289n28
Ford Foundation, 193, 222, 236, 314n41; and the CIA, 89, 190–191, 277n9; funding for CCF/IACF, 94, 197–199, 207–208, 215–219, 220, 310n15
Formalism, 29, 56, 61, 69, 79, 113, 142
Free Trade Union Committee, 54, 85, 98
Frei, Eduardo, 92, 107, 236
Frente Cívico Mexicano de Afirmación Revolucionaria (FCMAR), 168, 297n39
Frente Revolucionario Democrático, 137, 138–139
Freyre, Gilberto, 180
Fuentes, Carlos, 1, 162, 166, 170, 222–223, 225, 229–230; and the CCF, 187–188; and International PEN, 189, 199; and Mundo Nuevo, 198, 201–202, 205
Furtado, Celso, 181–184, 311n17
Gallegos, Rómulo, 53, 55, 102, 103, 110–111, 122
García Márquez, Gabriel, 5, 8, 111, 166, 198, 207, 227
García Treviño, Rodrigo: and antipeace campaigns, 87–88; and the CCF, 93, 114, 128, 130, 177–178, 185–186, 215; and the FCMAR, 149, 164, 168, 177–178
Germani, Gino, 192–196
Gide, André, 33, 35–36
Ginsberg, Allen, 200–201
Gómez Sicre, José, 114
González, Valentín “El Campesino,” 83–84, 122
González Videla, Gabriel, 49, 76
Gorkin, Julián, 13, 19–22, 30–31, 42–48; and the Spanish Civil War, 34–35, 83–84; and Octavio Paz, 36, 113; and the Dies Committee, 41; and the CIA, 84–85; and the CCF, 85–86, 90, 94, 98–99, 107, 109–110, 177–178; and antipeace campaigns, 92; and the coup in Guatemala, 99–101, 104–105; and “universalism” in the arts, 109–110, 114–115, 144; and Cuba, 122, 128, 130–131, 138, 144; and anti-Neruda campaign, 191–192, 304n35
Goulart, João, 181–184
Gramsci, Antonio, 6, 242; ironic Gramscianism, 18, 243
Grant, Frances, 97
Grau San Martín, Ramón, 120–122
Guerrilla warfare, 63, 83, 124, 129, 145–146, 172, 209, 211–212, 219, 221, 230
Guevara, Che, 100, 117, 129, 135, 141, 145–146, 171–172, 211–212; and ideas about culture, 10, 140, 221, 223; and foco theory, 124, 145–146, 219
Guillén, Nicolás, 35, 79, 140, 142
Haya de la Torre, Víctor Raúl, 95–96, 98
Hook, Sidney, 45, 97, 243; and Leon Trotsky, 37; and the Committee for Cultural Freedom, 39, 42; and the Ad Hoc Committee for Cultural Freedom, 61–62, 88–89
Humanismo, 116–118
Hunt, E. Howard, 90
Hunt, John, 89, 178–180, 184–191, 199, 204, 210, 213–215, 241
Ibáñez, Roberto, 86, 278n17
Ibargüengoitia, Jorge, 188–189, 210, 230
Instituto di Tella, 197
Instituto Latinoamericano de Relaciones Internacionales (ILARI), 197, 209, 214–217, 219, 220
Intellectuals: in Latin America, 1–2, 4–5, 8–10, 251n2, 254n17; and the Cultural Cold War, 2, 5–7, 234, 237–238; and Sartre-Camus debates, 3–5; and commitment in revolution, 8–10, 79, 141–142; privatization after the Cold War, 233–234
Inter-American Association for Democracy and Freedom (IADF), 97–98, 122, 129–130, 137, 227
International Association for Cultural Freedom (IACF). See Congress for Cultural Freedom
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, 54–55
International Lenin Prize for Strengthening Peace among Peoples, 67, 79, 172
International Peace Prize, 76, 79
International PEN, 188–189, 199, 205, 208
International Stalin Prize for Strengthening Peace among Peoples, 67, 79, 151, 154–156, 171–172
International Writers’ Congress for the Defense of Culture, 29–31
Jara, Heriberto, 150–154, 156–157, 164, 169
Jaspers, Karl, 88
J. M. Kaplan Fund, 196
Joliot-Curie, Frédéric, 63, 152, 271–272n30
Josselson, Michael, 89, 93, 106–107, 109–110, 178, 186, 196, 214; and Cuadernos, 190, 213–215
Kahlo, Frida, 36, 38, 41, 82, 153
Kennedy, John F., 12, 141, 168, 175
Khrushchev, Nikita, 79, 111, 152, 171
Kibalchich, Vlady, 45, 285n58
Lewis, Oscar, 222, 311n17
Libre, 229–230
Liga de Escritores y Artistas Revolucionarios, 33, 36
Llerena, Mario, 118, 127–130; and the CCF, 102, 127–130, 138, 288n25; and coletillas, 134–137; recruiting for Castro, 139–140, 291n45
Lombardo Toledano, Vicente, 31–33, 80, 156; and the CTAL, 32–33, 55, 96–97, 154; and World War II, 39, 42–44, 46; and the Partisans for Peace, 71–73, 122, 149, 150; and the MLN, 148, 154, 162, 164–165, 169–170
López Mateos, Adolfo, 156, 163, 165, 167–168, 170
Lovestone, Jay, 54, 83–85, 96
Lowell, Robert, 182–183, 186
Lundkvist, Artur, 192, 304n35
Lunes de Revolución, 134, 140–142, 198
Machado, Gerardo, 26–27, 120
Madariaga, Salvador de, 103, 106, 204, 306n50
Magdaleno, Mauricio, 103, 114
Mañach, Jorge, 118, 120–121, 123, 128, 135, 138; and “History Will Absolve Me,” 125; and the CCF, 126–127, 131; and Casa de las Américas, 132
Marcha, 198, 204, 209, 306n50
Marcué Pardiñas, Manuel, 166–167, 169
Marinello, Juan, 73, 274n45
Maritain, Jacques, 88, 91
Matos, Huber, 129, 134
Matthews, Herbert, 129
Mella, Julio Antonio, 26–27, 120
Mercier Vega, Luis, 178–179, 181, 185, 189–190; and ILARI, 197, 216–221; and CIA revelations, 204–205, 214–215, 241
Mexican Pro-Peace Committee. See World Peace Council
Mexican Revolution, 13, 22–23, 71–72, 150, 255n19; and Lázaro Cárdenas, 31–33, 147–148, 150, 158, 160
Meyer, Cord, 208
Milla, Benito, 179, 199, 215, 300–301n9
Miller, Arthur, 58, 189, 199, 200, 307n52
Mistral, Gabriela, 66–68, 72
Modernization theory, 175, 177, 193–195, 210, 220
Modotti, Tina, 25–28, 120
Monge, Luis Alberto,
106, 133
Monteforte Toledo, Mario, 104–106, 115
Movimiento de Liberación Nacional (MLN), 17, 146–149, 157, 159, 160, 162–163, 172–173, 188, 240; campaigns to undermine, 164–168; internal divisions, 169–170; and the Tricontinental Conference, 171–172
Mujal, Eusebio, 122–124, 132–133, 139
Mundo Nuevo, 14–16, 196; relationship with the CCF, 190, 199, 205–207, 210, 216–218, 242, 301n9; and the “boom,” 198, 203, 206–207; and tension with Cuba, 200–203, 225–226; aesthetic position, 201–202, 307n55; circulation figures, 216, 310n11
Murena, Héctor, 179, 190, 204–205
Nabokov, Nicolas, 61–62, 181
National Endowment for Democracy, 231–232
National Student Association, 107, 208
Neoliberalism, 176, 233, 236, 237
Neruda, Pablo, 2, 14, 240; and the Spanish Civil War, 35–36; and David Álfaro Siqueiros, 41, 161, 264n42; and the Partisans of Peace, 49–51, 60, 64–65, 73–78, 80; and Joseph Stalin, 74, 76, 111; and the Continental Cultural Congress, 91–92, 153; and the Nobel Prize, 191–192; and International PEN, 199–200, 205; and Cuban criticism, 202, 205–206; and Mundo Nuevo, 206; and Salvador Allende, 227–229
Nicolai, Georg, 93
Niemeyer, Oscar, 59
Nin, Andreu, 34, 36
Obregón, Álvaro, 24–26
Ocampo, Victoria, 65–67, 191, 199
Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, 66
Oliver, María Rosa, 51, 65–68, 206
Organización Regional Interamericana de Trabajadores, 55, 154, 162; and the CCF, 106, 107, 282n39; and Cuba, 123, 133, 289n32; criticism of, 162; funding, 287n13
Orrego-Salas, Juan, 91
Ortega, Daniel, 231
Orwell, George, 45, 53
Padilla, Heberto, 140, 221–223, 228, 311n20, 312n25; Padilla affair, 223–227, 229, 312n27
Parra, Nicanor, 115, 199, 238
Partido Comunista do Brasil, 59, 68–69
Partido Comunista Mexicano, 25, 148, 154, 156–157; and peace campaigns, 149–150, 153; and the MLN, 162, 170
Partido Obrero-Campesino Mexicano, 156–157
Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista, 34, 44–45, 83, 216
Partisan Review, 38, 45
Partisans for Peace. See World Peace Council
Paz, Octavio, 36, 45, 65–66, 113, 186, 229–230, 232–233, 236; declining to participate in the CCF, 197, 285n56, 306n47
Peace Movement. See World Peace Council
Perón, Juan Domingo, 53, 108, 193, 237
Picasso, Pablo, 14, 50, 60, 62
Pinochet, Augusto, 108, 229, 233, 236, 238
Pivert, Marceau, 19–22, 47, 83
Política, 159–160, 166–167
Prado Júnior, Caio, 69
Praeger, Frederick A., 108–109
Prebisch, Raúl, 176
Prío Socarrás, Carlos, 120, 122, 124, 126, 129, 139
Proenza, Teresa, 153
Project Camelot, 176–177, 195, 200
Rama, Ángel, 8, 195–196, 226
Ramparts, 208–209, 214
Reyes, Alfonso, 90–91, 102, 103
Rivera, Diego, 13, 24–25, 27–28, 33, 111–113, 241; and the WPC, 2, 14, 51, 64, 65, 72, 74, 79–82, 149, 153, 240; and Leon Trotsky, 36, 37, 38; as U.S. State Department informant, 41
Roa, Raúl, 102, 116, 118, 120, 128, 130–131, 139, 291n44
Rockefeller, Nelson, 66, 68
Rockefeller Foundation, 94, 186
Rodó, José Enrique, 23, 225
Rodríguez, Horacio Daniel, 190, 214, 217
Rodríguez Monegal, Emir, 178, 212, 226, 229, 242; and Mundo Nuevo, 198–209, 216–218; and International PEN, 199, 200, 208, 304n31
Romero, José Luis, 102, 106
Romualdi, Serafino, 55, 90, 96, 123, 220
Rostow, Walt, 175, 194
Rousset, David, 62, 65, 84
Rulfo, Juan, 187, 210
Rushdie, Salman, 231–232
Sánchez, Luis Alberto, 95, 102, 104
Sánchez Arango, Aureliano, 119–120, 122–123, 126, 128, 137, 139
Santa Cruz, Hernán, 53, 92
Santamaría, Haydée, 131, 200, 211
Sarduy, Severo, 140, 198
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 4–5, 58, 73, 140, 142, 192, 223
Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 97, 141, 175
Second International Congress of Writers for the Defense of Culture, 35–36
Serge, Victor, 13, 19–22, 30–31, 35–36, 42–47, 83–84, 109, 113
Shedd, Margaret, 186–187
Shils, Edward, 102, 193, 302n22
Shostakovich, Dmitri, 60–62, 65
Siempre!, 166, 187, 267n56
Silva, Luiz Inácio Lula da, 236
Siqueiros, David Álfaro, 13, 25, 33, 112; and the Spanish Civil War, 34, 46; and assassination attempt of Trotsky, 40–41, 191; and the Partisans for Peace, 72, 74, 78, 122, 149; and imprisonment for “social dissolution,” 160–161, 170
Social democracy, 47, 52–56, 86, 96, 277n6; and the Congress for Cultural Freedom, 3, 85; relative scarcity in Latin America, 15–18, 218, 227, 243–244; and U.S. hegemony, 98, 208, 235, 308n67; and the Cuban Revolution, 128, 134; after the Cold War, 233, 236. See also Anti-Communist Left
Socialist realism, 14, 29, 51, 56, 61, 70, 74–75, 78, 80, 82, 240; and its absence in Cuba, 142
Solari, Aldo, 195–196, 220
Soriano, Juan, 114
Spanish Civil War, 33–36, 66; influence on Cultural Cold War, 3, 13, 22, 198; veterans active in Cultural Cold War, 19, 30, 40, 44, 46, 83–84, 91, 129, 178
Stalin, Joseph, 26, 34, 41–42, 53, 61–63, 74, 111; and culture, 2, 29, 56, 142
Stalin Peace Prize. See International Stalin Prize for Strengthening Peace among Peoples
Stockholm Appeal, 63, 149–150
Stone, Shepard, 215–217, 220
Sur, 65–67, 70, 179, 190–191, 301n10
Taller de Gráfica Popular, 33, 72
Tamayo, Jorge L., 157, 164–165, 167
Tamayo, Rufino, 112–114
Tannenbaum, Frank, 103, 155–156, 241–242, 265n49
Thomas, Norman, 97, 103, 106, 263n38
Totalitarianism, 5, 37, 44, 57, 65, 66, 97; and Leon Trotsky, 37; and the CCF, 86, 90, 93, 95, 99, 107, 108, 113, 115, 181, 186, 215; and Cuba, 138, 145, 174; and the end of the Cold War, 233, 235–236, 237
Tresca, Carlo, 21
Tricontinental Conference, 171–173, 221, 228
Trotsky, Leon, 13, 19, 22–23, 28–30, 36–41, 140
Urrutia, Manuel, 130, 133
Varela, Alfredo, 70, 273n39
Vargas, Getúlio, 52, 68–70, 78
Vargas Llosa, Mario, 4–5, 199, 209, 223, 229–230, 232–233; and the “Literature is fire” speech, 211–212
Vázquez Gómez, Elena, 153
Veríssimo, Érico, 91, 102
Vidali, Vittorio, 21, 26–27, 46, 267n55
Waldeen, 74
Wallace, Henry, 72, 153, 274n45
Whitman, Walt, 75–76
Wisner, Frank, 62
Women’s International Democratic Federation, 52, 164
World Federation of Trade Unions, 52, 54–55
World Peace Council (WPC), 2, 14, 17, 50–52, 62–64, 152, 164, 294n12; and the World Congress of Partisans for Peace (Paris, 1949), 50, 62; and anticosmopolitanism, 51, 56–59, 64, 70, 80; and the World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peace (Wroclaw, 1948), 58–60; and the Cultural and Scientific Congress for World Peace (New York City, 1949), 60–61, 88–89; and anti-Communist counterreaction, 61–62, 64, 68, 87–89, 91; and the Stockholm Appeal, 63, 149–150; in Argentina, 65–68, 70; and the São Paulo State Congress for Peace (São Paulo, 1949), 68–70; in Uruguay, 71; and the Continental Congress for Peace (Mexico City, 1949), 71–76, 87, 153; and socialist realism, 74–76, 77–78, 82; and the Continental Cultural Congress (Santiago, 1953), 76–77, 91–92; and the Mexican Pro-Peace Committee, 78, 149, 151, 153, 157, 169; financing, 78–79, 153–154
, 275n54; and the MLN, 147–148, 156–157, 161, 163; and Guatemala, 154; and the Tricontinental Conference, 171–172; black legend of, 239–240, 243
Yupanqui, Atahualpa, 70, 273n38
Zaid, Gabriel, 230
Zhdanov, Andrei, 56, 61, 70, 78