Why Do Pirates Love Parrots?

by David Feldman

  But other folks were willing to put down hard cash to buy parrots. Dampier discusses his shipmates buying “an abundance” of cockatoos and parakeets, presumably to sell or trade. Pirates had a ready venue to sell their booty, for there were established bird markets in London and Paris in the eighteenth century, and exotic birds from the New World presumably were attractive purchases for the wealthy and status-seeking. Indeed, Cissie Fairchild wrote an entire book, Elephant Slaves and Pampered Parrots: Exotic Animals in Eighteenth-Century Paris, about the bustling trade in exotic animals (the Sunday bird market still exists on the Île de la Cité in Paris).

  Pirates might have admired the colors of parrots, been amused by their mimicking ability, and have been satiated by their succulence. But love? Only money can buy a pirate’s love.

  Submitted by Tina Ritchie of Oceanside, California. Thanks also to Travis Cook of Cool Ridge, West Virginia.

  Why Do Packing Peanuts Come in Such Strange Shapes?

  We have to admit ambivalence about packing peanuts—those bite-sized treats you find in shipping boxes. They do a wonderful job of protecting stuff. But they also do a fabulous job of landing all over the carpet and exhibiting static clingsmanship of the highest order.

  Before packing peanuts, most shippers were content to protect merchandise with excelsior (shaved wood) or wadded-up newspapers. But a man named Arthur Graham had a better idea. Graham sold soda fountain supplies, such as ice cream cones and straws. During the manufacturing process, Graham was left with soda straw trimmings. “What could these by-products be used for?” he must have pondered.

  Graham sold his “waste” to Gump’s, the renowned department store in San Francisco, which had previously used excelsior as its packing material of choice. Soon, Graham had interested a defense contractor in buying much more of his straw trimmings, until the tail started wagging the dog—goodbye soda fountain business, hello wonderful world of packing materials.

  The one flaw in paper as packing material is that it is relatively heavy. Graham traveled to Germany with an engineer to talk to the folks at BASF about polystyrene, and the rest is peanut history. In 1967, Graham incorporated Free-Flow Packaging (FP International), and the company still sells 100 percent recycled polystyrene “peanuts.” You’ve undoubtedly seen FPI’s peanuts—they are tube-shaped with a pinch in the middle a figure eight), betraying its paper straw ancestry (you can check them out yourself at http://www.fpintl.com/fpfp_htm).

  According to Virginia Lytle of FPI, the pinch gave the peanut more stability, and the shape allowed it to interlock with its fellow eights and cushion the object sent. FPI calls its peanuts “Flo-Pak loose fill” and it is essentially the same product Graham originally invented, only with more air than the original. FPI patented the configuration of its Flo-Pak, so all of its imitators were forced to invent their own shape.

  Unlike the harder foam inserts that hold electronics equipment shipped in boxes, loose fill such as peanuts is most effective when they are not rigid (most peanuts are approximately 95 percent air). Robert Krebs, of the American Chemistry Council, notes that

  the oddness of the shape gives extra cushioning and flexion as a package is put within them, and [the space in the cushion they make] can change shape much more easily when the contours are not so uniform.

  We spoke to Tom Eckel, senior vice president of Storopack, the largest manufacturer of polystyrene packaging, who told Imponderables that every manufacturer thinks that its shape is the best—Eckel has a display board showing 35 different peanut shapes. Before committing to its choice, Storopack thoroughly researched the possibilities and hasn’t changed its shape in ten years. Any contour that allows the peanuts to interlock to a certain extent but not settle into a mass is prized: the fewer the peanuts and the more air in the box, the lower the shipping costs for the sender.

  Two more mini-Imponderables: If packing peanuts are made out of 100% recycled polystyrene, can you recycle yours? In the United States, at least, the Plastic Loose Fill Council will be more than happy to take them off your hands. Just call The Peanut Hotline at (800) 828-2214 and they’ll direct you to a business in your community that will take them.

  And even more pressing, when shipping their wares around the country, do packing peanut manufacturers protect the valuable merchandise by packing them in, er, packing peanuts?

  Submitted by Eric Weiner of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

  Why Can’t You Buy Grape Ice Cream?

  Grape is a popular flavor for juice and candy—why not ice cream? Last we heard, wine was rather popular, too. When faced with this Imponderable, our sources buckled like a cheap umbrella. Carol Christison, executive director of the International Dairy-Deli-Bakery Association, wrote:

  You can’t buy it because no one makes it.

  OK, OK, I really don’t know. I’m sure there are some ice cream associations that might know. They make garlic ice cream, so why not grape?

  Why not, indeed? It’s true that we found no groundswell of outrage among consumers that grape ice cream isn’t available (while pink bubblegum and licorice are!). Indeed, a representative from Häagen-Dazs that we contacted claimed there was “no demand from consumers” for it.

  The more we pursued the problem with ice cream makers, the more they decried the lack of flavor in grapes. A flavor guru from Ben & Jerry’s told us

  One of the reasons we’ve never done a grape ice cream is because there would hardly be any taste to it. While grapes are a tasty snack, they are mostly water and don’t pack a whole lot of flavor. Most of the “grape” flavored snacks that we enjoy are artificially flavored to be much stronger than what natural grape flavoring would provide.

  In actuality, we do use grape juice concentrate as one of the main ingredients for our line of Body & Soul ice creams [Ben & Jerry’s low-carbohydrate, low-fat line of ice cream and yogurts] because the juice gives us a natural way to reduce the sugar added in.

  If you look at the nutritional label of many fruit juices, especially berry juices, you’ll see grape juice listed as the first ingredient. Grape juice is prized precisely because of its lack of flavor—it is used to sweeten cranberry juice, for example, but is mild enough not to distract from the cranberry taste. By using the cheaper grape juice, marketers can also trumpet “100% juice” on the labels.

  Bob Graeter, the vice president of operations at what many dessert fanatics consider to be a premier American ice cream maker, Cincinnati’s Graeter’s, told Imponderables a similar tale of woe about the grape’s lack of flavor. One of Graeter’s franchisees once made a moderately popular grape sorbet, but it was artificially flavored, and

  that may be the only way to get enough grape flavor to get a good flavored sorbet or ice cream. This may be an issue as to why no one else is doing a grape-flavored ice cream or sorbet product. Our direction is to use all natural flavors in our ice cream products.

  Although we have not been able to find a single grape ice cream specimen, we have found scattered sightings of grape frozen confections. Of course, grape Popsicles have been a staple for almost 100 years. Nestlé Ice Cream sells a grape sherbet as part of its Push-Up line. And Baskin-Robbins told us they occasionally offer a “purple grape-flavored ice.” What do all of these frozen grape products have in common? None of the desserts except for the Nestlé Push-Up contains any dairy products, and sherbet contains only a little.

  If someone provided a great grape ice cream, demand would follow. Ultimately, we think that the bad karma between grape and dairy is the villain here. We wrote to Meredith Kurtzman, who makes extraordinary frozen desserts. Although her repertoire includes exotica such as her signature olive oil gelato at New York’s Otto restaurant, and more to the point, a mean Concord grape sorbet, “What’s the deal?” we asked her. “You can make great ice cream out of olive oil and rice flavors but not grape?” Kurtzman responded:

  Grape ice cream is possible to make, but I don’t think that the flavor of grapes is strong enough to shine through a milk base. W
hen one is making any ice cream from fruit, you have to avoid too much water present in fruit, which will make the product more icy then you might like. But then you can’t add too many solids either, because they stiffen up the texture.

  There are many ways to compensate for both of these factors, but that’s a chapter in itself, that I’m not ready to write…yet.

  Yet? Yet? Do I sense a cliffhanger? Will Kurtzman eliminate this Imponderable single-handedly? Hang on.

  Submitted by Michael Johnson of Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

  STOP THE PRESSES!

  We have found grape ice cream. For more than thirty years, Tony’s Ice Cream in Gastonia, North Carolina ( just outside of Charlotte) has been selling grape ice cream. We spoke to patriarch Louis Coletta, the third-generation proprietor (whose children now work at the store), who told us the story of his shop and his purple ice cream.

  Louis’s grandfather started selling his handmade ice cream from a push cart, one bucket at a time. As he prospered, he switched to horse-drawn carts and eventually motorized trucks. The current store opened in 1947, but the object of our story, grape ice cream, wasn’t introduced until the 1970s—Coletta doesn’t remember the exact date of his momentous contribution to ice cream history.

  When his father’s health was failing, Louis, an industrial engineer, came back to run the family business. Coletta remembers grapevines always growing around his family’s house, and told Imponderables that the reasons for offering the new flavor were twofold—it was a tribute to the family’s Italian heritage, and it was designed to appeal to kids.

  Coletta confirms all the problems with creating grape ice cream that our other experts detailed. Tony’s has experimented using real grapes, but found that seeds were a problem, the grapes with good flavor were too sour, and the texture was wrong. So although all of Tony’s ice cream is made at a plant next door to the shop, using natural ingredients whenever possible, the only solution to the problem was to use artificial grape flavor.

  Grape has proven to be one of Tony’s most popular flavors, not only in cups and cones, but in milk shakes. As the family anticipated, grape ice cream is most popular with kids, but Coletta reports that another demographic group goes bonkers for grape ice cream, too—pregnant women. Want to see what drives Gastonians wild? Check out the grape ice cream photos at http://www.imponderables.com/gastonia.php.

  P.S. Tony’s is not alone. James Bristow, a resident of Charlotte, North Carolina, who photographed Tony’s grape ice cream for our Web site, was nonplussed when contacted about our exciting find. “There’s another place with grape ice cream a few miles away—Bruster’s.”

  Right he was. Bruster’s Ice Cream is a rapidly growing chain of more than 200 ice cream stores. Started as one family-run store in 1989 by Bruce Reed, Bruster’s introduced grape ice cream shortly after it opened. According to Reed, kids requested the flavor. We spoke to Christina Parker, vice president of operations, who told us that Bruster’s grape ice cream was also made from artificial flavoring, and that the flavor is still popular among children, especially in the summer. And if grape ice cream seems a little mundane for the kiddies, they can also sample other flavors such as blue pop, watermelon, purple dinosaur, cotton candy explosion (with chocolate-covered Pop Rocks), and our favorite, birthday cake (with icing and sprinkles, and presumably no candles).

  Why Don’t You Ever Hear Giraffes Vocalize? Do They Ever Make a Sound?

  Giraffes are among the most taciturn of animals. We’ve never heard a giraffe vocalize but it turns out that they’ve been dissing us, for they possess larynxes and vocal cords and actually make a variety of sounds.

  The heroine of our story is Elizabeth von Muggenthaler, a bioacoustician and president of Fauna Communications Research Institute in Hillsborough, North Carolina. Muggenthaler reckoned that because giraffes are highly social, and are forager-vegetarians who are the prey of other animals, it was highly unlikely that they could survive without intraspecies communication. The giraffe’s anatomy was another clue to Muggenthaler—if they don’t speak, then why are their ears shaped like parabolas, which seem perfectly designed to pick up on sounds?

  Giraffes do vocalize occasionally. Calves, especially, utter a bleating mewl. Mothers utter a “roaring bellow” when looking for their young, who are often left alone in the forest while the parent forages. And males are known to seduce partners with a “raucous cough.” Occasionally, adults also bleat (Muggenthaler compares them to goat bleats) and “moo” as if imitating cows. When threatened, the giraffe’s yelling side emerges—they are capable of mustering up a roar when in danger. Still, these vocalizations are exceptions rather than the rule, and it is possible even for those who work around giraffes to think they are mute.

  Could giraffes speak in ways humans couldn’t understand? Scientists had already determined that whales and elephants communicated via infrasonic sound—vocalizations at such low frequencies that humans could not hear them. Scientists discovered the songs of the humpback whale more than forty years ago, and researchers like Muggenthaler and the Bioacoustics Research Program at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology have documented the complexity of infrasonic vocalizations. A Cornell researcher, Katy Payne, discovered the elephants’ infrasonic communication when she found her ears throbbing near elephant cages. It reminded her of singing in a church choir, where the pipe organ was almost inaudible at the lower frequencies but the pressure in her ears palpable.

  While studying the low-frequency vocalizations of elephants, Muggenthaler discovered that rhinoceroses also utilized infrasonic vocalizations, and she suspected that giraffes did, too. In 1998, she confirmed it by studying eleven giraffes in two zoos. Measuring infrasonic communication is difficult in the controlled atmosphere of a zoo, since passing cars, ambient wind, and even water create infrasound, but it is even more difficult in the wild, where other animals also can compete with the giraffes’ vocalizations.

  Muggenthaler and her fellow researchers discovered that the giraffes’ infrasonic vocalizations were associated with two physical movements: a “neck stretch,” when giraffes lift their head and necks over their bodies, and the “head throw,” that features a lowering and quick raising of the chin. Almost every time a giraffe was observed performing a neck stretch, an infrasonic vocalization accompanied it. Head throws were more common, but there giraffes vocalized only 25 percent of the time.

  Although it hasn’t yet been proven, Muggenthaler’s theory is that the infrasonic vocalizations might be caused by

  large volumes of air being forced up the neck and/or possibly channeled through hollow posterior sinuses. During the study, observers noticed a “shiver” or vibration extending from the chest up the entire length of the trachea that occurred during some neck stretches that accompanied vocalizations. It is possible that this “shiver” is air movement, and could be responsible for the signal. If air is [sic] moving up the giraffe’s neck is producing infrasound, the mechanism may be Helmholtz resonance, which occurs when an enclosed volume of air is coupled to the outside free air by means of an aperture.

  If giraffes are capable of vocalizing in a higher frequency through their mouths, why bother with the low-pitched stuff? One obvious advantage is that low-frequency sounds can travel farther than higher-pitched ones, a crucial advantage to giraffes (and elephants), who often are separated from their families by greater distances than their voices can reach. And although Muggenthaler’s team did not study how the giraffes use infrasonic vocalizations to communicate with each other, she does speculate about why infrasonic communica-tion might aid in giraffes’ survival. Evidently, we are not the only animals who can’t hear their low-frequency emissions:

  If the giraffes are communicating [with each other], it would be very advantageous for them, being prey, to be able to communicate “covertly” using signals designed to blend in with the background noise.

  Submitted by Peter Lanza of Stamford, Connecticut.

  Why Do Some Slot Machines Use Fruit Symbols
?

  When you think about slot machines, chances are you conjure up glassy-eyed gamblers in Sin City, Nevada, with cigarettes dangling from their mouths—hardly the setting for showcasing images of fresh fruit. Yet fruit was associated with slot machines almost from the time of their invention—in fact, in England, slot machines have always been known as “fruit machines.”

  Although there were mechanical gambling devices before, including a primitive precursor of today’s video poker machines, Charles Fey invented the first one-armed bandit in 1895. Fey’s Liberty Bell slot machine, with three reels sporting three of the four suits found in a deck of cards (clubs were the odd suit out) and the now-familiar cracked Liberty Bell. The highest jackpot, the princely sum of ten nickels, was won if you could line up three Liberty Bells in a row.

  Edibles came into the picture when the Mills Company of Chicago redesigned Fey’s original Liberty Bell and created a special machine for the Bell Fruit Gum Company. While most early slot machines were gambling devices placed in taverns (prizes were often a free drink or small amounts of money), Bell wanted a machine that could be played for a family audience at fairs and carnivals. Instead of playing cards, Bell placed drawings of fruits that represented the flavors of Bell Gum. If three watermelons or lemons were aligned, the machine would dispense a pack of Bell Gum. With the great popularity of this machine, the fruit symbols prevailed, and are still depicted on some modern machines.