The Evolution of Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to Be as They Are.
Page 29
19 Frances Trollope: quoted in Turner, p. 58.
20 “very dirty”: Anthony Trollope, quoted in ibid.
21 Charles Dickens: quoted by John F. Kasson, in Grover, p. 125.
22 “eating soup”: Kasson, in ibid., p. 125.
23 “everything with it”: Kasson, in ibid., p. 125.
24 Jacob Bronowski: quoted by Ralph Caplan, in ID, November-December 1990, p. 11.
25 some Eskimos: Giblin, pp. 2–6.
26 chopsticks developed: see Giblin, Kleiman, Debra Weiner.
27 “honorable and upright man”: quoted in Giblin, p. 34.
2 FORM FOLLOWS FAILURE
1 “30,000”: Norman, pp. 11–12; cf. Biederman, p. 127.
2 “diversity of things”: Basalla, Evolution, p. 1. new chemical substances: Technology Review, July 1990, p. 80.
3 “The variety of made things”: Basalla, Evolution, p. 2. “the desire of designers”: Forty, p. 91.
4 “found in a free”: Giedion, p. 396; quoted in Forty, p. 91.
5 “it is most unlikely”: Forty, pp. 92–93.
6 “Could Montgomery Ward’s”: ibid., p. 93.
7 “aphorism”: ibid., p. 12.
8 “doctrine”: Pye, Nature and Aesthetics, pp. 11–12.
9 “The concept of function”: ibid., p. 13.
10 “All designs”: ibid., p. 70.
11 “If our metal face”: Alexander, p. 19.
12 “Suppose we are given”: ibid., p. 23.
13 “Even the most aimless”: ibid., pp. 52–53.
14 “although only a few”: quoted in ibid., p. 203n.
15 “the fundamental unit”: Basalla, Evolution, p. vii.
3 INVENTORS AS CRITICS
1 Jacob Rabinovich: see Brown, pp. 183–85; Rabinow, p. 18.
2 “Inventors are people”: Rabinow, p. 212.
3 “When I see something”: in Brown, p. 185.
4 “continually study the designs”: Kamm, p. 142.
5 Inventors at Work: Brown.
6 “by far the most”: quoted in Holzman, p. 10.
7 “A much better bicycle”: quoted in ibid., p. 17.
8 “terrible-looking bottle”: in Brown, p. 370.
9 “failures and the knowledge”: in ibid., p. 368.
10 replacing glass bottles: see Brown, pp. 353–54; cf. New York Times, July 7, 1990, Wyeth obituary.
11 “They tend”: in Brown, pp. 77–79.
12 “I think”: in ibid., p. 146.
13 “Tools!”: Laughlin, p. 36.
14 tungsten-carbide particles: Nation’s Business, February 1991, p. 72. “The slot is traditional”: Rabinow, p. 195.
15 “If you make”: ibid., p. 196. “When hexagon nuts”: Pye, p. 142.
16 Erector sets: Heimberger, pp. 126ff., with thanks to William Petroski. Meccano sets: Harris, p. 23.
17 “So long as there are”: Coppersmith and Lynx, p. 9.
18 Edwin Land: New York Times, March 2, 1991, obituary.
19 “Invention finds”: Usher, p. 11.
20 “I believe that the most”: Brunei, p. 492.
21 bronze powder: Bessemer, pp. 53ff.
22 “provided the funds”: ibid., p. 81.
23 “two-step procedure”: Pressman, p. 26.
24 “This can often”: ibid., p. 28.
25 “You should not spend”: ibid., p. 49.
26 “I knew the art”: Rabinow, p. 75.
27 Rabinow’s tuner was patented: U.S. Patent No. 3,119,273.
28 “No one uses”: Rabinow, p. 76.
29 “Discuss how”: Pressman, pp. 142–43.
30 “Genius?”: quoted in ibid., p. 31.
31 disagreement: cf. Brown, p. 6; Garrett, p. 4.
32 “The love of improvement”: Bessemer, p. 10.
4 FROM PINS TO PAPER CLIPS
1 John Eubank, a Detroit pencil collector, and Howard Sufrin, a Pittsburgh collector of antique office supplies (on display at the offices of Premier Business Products), provided hard-to-come-by artifacts and information for this chapter. Betsy Burstein of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of American History kindly provided information about the institution’s “National Paper Clip Collection” and some articles from its files.
2 survey: photocopies from Howard Sufrin files.
3 “One man draws”: Smith, vol. I, p. 6.
4 “One fuses metal”: quoted in Lubar, p. 258.
5 sixty feet per minute: Diderot, vol. I, text to plate 185; cf. Greeley, pp. 1286–88.
6 “we must not”: Lubar, p. 257.
7 “mechanical scheming”: Howe, quoted in ibid., p. 260.
8 John Ireland Howe: Dictionary of American Biography, vol. IX.
9 “pin money”: see Panati, p. 313.
10 “paper of pins”: see Lubar, p. 271.
11 “bank pins”: Morris, p. 12.
12 “These pins”: Noesting, p. 7.
13 sack of emery grit: Armistead, p. 91.
14 “The corners”: U.S. Patent No. 43,435.
15 “as in fasteners similar”: quoted in Morris, p. 13.
16 “effectually secures”: U.S. Patent No. 361,439.
17 Latin anagram: see, e.g., Love, p. 2.
18 “fastened paper clips”: Segelcke, p. 61.
19 “It consists of”: U.S. Patent No. 675,761.
20 “I am aware”: U.S. Patent No. 601,384.
21 Cornelius Brosnan: U.S. Patent No. 648,841.
22 “first successful bent wire”: Anonymous, p. [2].
23 “This invention relates”: U.S. Patent No. 648,841.
24 “of novel shape”: U.S. Patent No. 779,522.
25 “An eye for business”: quoted in Anonymous, p. [3].
26 “machine for making paper clips:” U.S. Patent No. 636,272.
27 Brosnan’s 1900 patent: U.S. Patent No. 648,841.
28 “direct ancestor”: Anonymous, p. [2].
29 “merely their protector”: Morris, p. 12.
30 “overwhelmingly successful”: ibid., p. 13.
31 “derived from the original”: Acco International, Inc., “History of the Paper Clip.” [Photocopied information sheets.]
32 “slide on”: Army and Navy, p. 349.
33 “most popular clip”: Morris, p. 13.
34 “If all that survives”: Edwards, text on paper clip.
35 “Could there possibly be”: Goldberger, pp. 287–88.
36 “An object”: U.S. Patent No. 1,985,866.
37 “We average ten letters”: quoted in Richmond (Va.), Times-Dispatch, January 20, 1962, p. 2.
38 introduced in the 1950s: see Robert H. Metz, “Tiny Paper Clips Are Big Business,” New York Times, July 20, 1958.
5 LITTLE THINGS CAN MEAN A LOT
1 The story of the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company and its products is in the company history, Our Story So Far, and in various news releases. Background on staplers comes from material supplied by Stanley Bostitch, Inc.
2 “It lacked proper balance”: “Scotch Transparent Tape Celebrates 50th Birthday,” 3M news release, [1980].
3 Art Fry: 3M news releases; cf. Time-Life, p. 75.
4 “some of the hymnal pages”: “Stick-to-it-spirit Takes the Post-it Brand Note from Brainstorm to Marketplace,” 3M news release, June 18, 1987.
5 “bootlegging”: ibid.; cf. Rabinow, p. 34.
6 “temporarily permanent”: Time-Life, p. 75.
7 “who had to accept”: “3M Researcher’s Yen for Hymnal Marker Produces One of the 1980s Top Selling Products,” 3M marketing services note, June 18, 1987.
8 “the use of staples”: Bostitch, “A Young Company with Half a Century of Experience,” p. 5.
9 “new models”: ibid.
6 STICK BEFORE ZIP
1 The story of the zipper is told in the Talon company history, abridged from a manuscript by James Gray. An independent treatment appears in the article by Federico.
2 Thomas Woodward: U.S. Patent No. 2,609.
3 Walter H
unt: U.S. Patent No. 6,281.
4 assigned to the draftsman: see, e.g., de Bono, p. 123.
5 buttons on men’s garments: see Feldman, pp. 237–38.
6 Elias Howe: Lewis Weiner, p. 132; cf. U.S. Patent No 8540. Whitcomb Judson: Gray; cf. Federico; see also Lewis Weiner.
7 one of Judson’s first: U.S. Patent No. 504,037.
8 A second patent: U.S. Patent No. 504,438.
9 “perfect the details”: Gray, p. 21.
10 “A pull and it’s done!”: advertisement reproduced in ibid., p. 24.
11 “A leaflet”: ibid., p. 26.
12 “the hook and eye principle”: ibid., p. 25.
13 Otto Frederick Gideon Sundback: ibid., pp. 28ff.
14 “to keep Judson’s machine running”: ibid., p. 23.
15 “His shrewd eye”: ibid. pp. 29–30.
16 “fully saturated”: quoted in ibid., p. 30.
17 James O’Neill: ibid., pp. 30, 32.
18 “To one side”: ibid., p. 33.
19 “hidden hook”: U.S. Patent No. 1,236,784.
20 “It doesn’t seem to me”: quoted in Gray, p. 34.
21 “An obscure company”: ibid., p. 37.
22 “Cross over quickly”: quoted in ibid., p. 34.
23 Hookless No. 2: ibid., pp. 38ff.
24 Scientific American: June 1983; see Lewis Weiner.
25 “First, a demand”: Gray, p. 40.
26 host of others: ibid., pp. 39–40; Federico, pp. 862ff.
27 orders for the hookless: Gray, pp. 42–45.
28 S-L machine: ibid., pp. 52–53.
29 Bertram G. Work: ibid., p. 60.
30 “Talon”: ibid., pp. 71, 85.
7 TOOLS MAKE TOOLS
1 “One stool was called”: Sturt, William Smith, pp. 71–72.
2 “ribber”: ibid., p. 73.
3 “A stranger entering”: in Jackson and Day, p. 7.
4 “an iron tool”: Agricola, p. 269.
5 earliest metal saws: see Jackson and Day, p. 74.
6 tooth-embedded jawbones: see Beckmann, vol. I, pp.
7 223–24. 121 “It’s a rare music”: Underhill, Woodwright’s Companion, p. 165.
8 “Laborious it was”: Sturt, Wheelwright’s Shop, pp. 35, 39–40.
9 duplex saw: Chronicle (Early American Industries Association), March 1989, P. 13.
10 “Kentucky, Ohio”: see Basalla, Evolution, p. 89.
11 The Hammer: Baird and Comerford.
12 “a startling or unique”: Pressman, p. 77.
13 “The best tack hammer”: quoted in Chronicle (Early American Industries Association), March 1989, p. 13.
8 PATTERNS OF PROLIFERATION
1 “An early list”: MacLachlan, p. 33.
2 “Ideal Olive Fork”: Turner, p. 217. 132
3 “A number of factors”: MacLachlan, p. 25.
4 “Tines on early models”: ibid., p. 9.
5 “By 1898”: Rainwater, in Grover, pp. 181–82.
6 Herbert Hoover: Turner, p. 185.
7 “One of the fears”: Post, pp. 631–32.
8 twenty-five years: Turner, p. 54; cf. Sears, Roebuck Catalogue, Fall and Winter, 1928–29, pp. 744–51, for ranges of quality available in the 1920s.
9 “In selecting her silver”: Post, pp. 626–27.
10 “The small fork”: ibid., p. 629.
11 “always with the primary object”: Coppersmith and Lynx, p. 20.
12 “Having invited his friends”: ibid., pp. 22–23.
13 “The menu”: ibid., p. 20.
14 “Seven and even nine”: Hall, pp. 77–78; cf. Grover, Kasson, Williams.
15 “for a small dinner”: Hall, p. 80.
16 “Short dinners”: Learned, p. 85.
17 “In order to give”: Hall, pp. 80–81.
18 “All English-speaking nations”: ibid., pp. 86–87.
19 “In England and her colonies”: Bradley, pp. 189–90.
20 “made dishes”: A Member, Manners and Tone, p. 93.
21 “much more difficult”: Bradley, p. 190.
22 “It is an affectation”: quoted in Williams, p. 42.
23 “cutting fork”: Turner, p. 180.
24 “with a fork”: quoted in Williams, p. 42.
25 “wasteful”: Post, p. 629.
26 “It was then discovered”: A Member, Manners and Rules, p. 118.
27 “at all formal dinners”: Bradley, p. 180.
28 “was so very inconvenient”: Hall, p. 85.
29 “fretwork trimmings”: Post, p. 629.
30 stainless-steel knife blades: Himsworth, p. 74.
31 “the ten most essential”: Rainwater, in Grover, p. 202.
9 DOMESTIC FASHION AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
1 “possible only to the longest purse”: Post, p. 627.
2 “very best English goods”: Army & Navy.
3 “on bad silver”: Post, p. 627.
4 “quality” and “charm”: Sears, Roebuck Catalogue, Fall and Winter 1928–29, PP. 744–45.
5 handbook of hammers: Baird and Comerford.
6 country craft tools: illustration reproduced in Basalla, Evolution, pp. 4–5.
7 “potters could not afford”: quoted in Forty, p. 18.
8 “style consists”: Viollet-le-Duc, p. 175.
9 “His first care”: ibid., p. 177.
10 “But the coppersmiths”: ibid., p. 178.
11 “physical appearance”: Loewy, Never Leave, p. 66.
12 “Once in a while”: ibid., pp. 74–75.
13 “shocked by the fact”: Loewy, Industrial Design, p. 51.
14 “success finally came”: ibid., p. 52.
15 Sigmund Gestetner: ibid., p. 60.
16 “Your present models”: Loewy, Never Leave, p. 189.
17 sewing needle: ibid., p. 195.
18 Lucky Strike: ibid., pp. 146–49.
19 railroad commission: ibid., pp. 135–41.
20 “no manufacturer”: ibid., p. 187.
21 “Walk through”: Dreyfuss, p. 203.
22 five-point formula: ibid., p. 160.
23 MAYA: Loewy, Never Leave, p. 278.
24 “survival form”: Dreyfuss, pp. 57–58.
25 “strive for a delicate balance”: Heskett, pp. 177–78.
10 THE POWER OF PRECEDENT
1 “It became”: Jewitt, pp. 52–53.
2 mottoes and verses: quoted in Jewitt, pp. 53–54.
3 insightful article: Ferguson, “Mind’s Eye.”
4 “The Ariel”: Heskett, pp. 177–78.
5 “radical innovation”: ID, May-June 1990, p. 72.
6 “Now the important”: Loewy, Never Leave, p. 313.
7 “Changes are”: ibid., p. 314.
8 “a clear-cut case”: ibid., p. 358.
9 “I unfolded my easel”: ibid., p. 359.
10 “Most of my work”: quoted in Wolff, pp. 44–45.
11 “The following”: Pressman, p. 159.
12 “other tricks”: ibid., p. 174.
13 “A claim that is short”: ibid., pp. 174–75.
14 “In a flying machine”: U.S. Patent No. 821,393.
15 “craft in the tradition”: Brown, p. 1.
16 Sydney Opera House: see, e.g., ENR, May 17, 1990, p. 26.
17 “It is relatively easy”: Billington, “Aesthetics,” p. 11.
11 CLOSURE BEFORE OPENING
1 For general background on the tin can, see especially Church. For the development of the aluminum beverage can, see especially various articles in Modern Metals, as noted below.
2 A prize: Church, p. 22.
3 “tin canister”: de Bono, p. 110.
4 “Cut round”: ibid., p. 113.
5 “sometimes heavier”: Panati, p. 115.
6 one pound empty: de Bono, p. 113.
7 “the first can-openers”: ibid.
8 “part bayonet”: Panati, p. 115.
9 “The advantages”: U.S. Patent No. 19,063.
10 Bull’s Head: see de Bono, p. 113
.
11 William Lyman: U.S. Patent No. 105,346.
12 familiar style of wheeled opener: see Panati, p. 116.
13 Sears, Roebuck catalogue: Fall and Winter, 1928–29, p. 801.
14 fortified wine: New York Times, January 31, 1991, p. C18.
15 church key is a simple lever: see Edwards, “church key and bottle opener” page.
16 Kaiser Aluminum: Modern Metals, January 1972, pp. 65, 67.
17 Adolph Coors Company: ibid., February 1959, pp. 62–63; January 1972, pp. 64ff.
18 Reynolds Metals and Alcoa: ibid., August 1967, p. 57.
19 can top … must be thicker: see ibid., December 1979, p. 27.
20 “There must be”: Dayton Daily News, October 27, 1989, pp. 1A, 6A.
21 “I personally did not”: Time-Life, p. 74. Cf., e.g., U.S. Patents Nos. 2,153,344; 2,978,140; 3,059,808.
22 to solve the loose-tab problem: see, e.g., Machine Design, November 25, 1976, p. 8.
23 “easy open ecology end”: see U.S. Patent No. 3,877,604.
24 “Since most people”: U.S. Patent No. 3,870,001.
25 Francis Silver: U.S. Patent No. 3,877,606.
26 Royal Crown: Modern Metals, July 1964, p. 86.
27 Coke and Pepsi: ibid., August 1967, p. 57.
28 recycling aluminum cans: ibid., January 1972, pp. 72, 74; May 1989, pp. 76ff. Cf. Resource Recycling, October 1990, pp. 26, 28–29.
29 records on recycling: Modern Metals, May 1989, p. 76.
30 liquid nitrogen: Iron Age, November 1988, p. 34.
31 steel-can industry: Scientific American, February 1989, pp. 72–73.
32 “While container reclosure”: U.S. Patent No. 4,673,099.
33 “It is believed”: U.S. Patent No. 4,951,835.
12 BIG BUCKS FROM SMALL CHANGE
1 “remarkable things occur”: Aristotle, p. 331.
2 “Civil engineering is the art”: in J. G. Watson, p. 9; cf. Garth Watson, p. 19.
3 “Civil engineering is the profession”: American Society of Civil Engineers, Official Register 1992, p. 293.
5 “Why do they make beds”: Aristotle, p. 395.
6 “They do not cord them”: ibid., pp. 395–96.
7 olive tree: Homer, p. 257.
8 American rope beds: Graves, p. 59.
9 “It would be well”: quoted in Engineering Education, July-August 1990, P. 524.