8. STRUGGLING FOR RELEVANCE: THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD’S EXILE
1. Interview with Burhan Ghalioun, Paris, 2 June 2011.
2. Parts of this chapter are drawn from material I have published elsewhere previously. See Raphaël Lefèvre, “After Hama: regime—Muslim Brotherhood relations, 1982, 2012” in Line Khatib et al., State and Islam in Ba’athist Syria: Cooptation or Confrontation? (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2012).
3. Adnan Saadeddine quoted in Alison Pargeter, The Muslim Brotherhood: the Burden of Tradition (London: Saqi Books, 2010) p. 85.
4. Adnan Saadeddine quoted in Hanna Batatu (1999), op. cit., p. 269.
5. Interview with Muhammed Riyad al-Shuqfah, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
6. Ibid.
7. Adnan Saadeddine, Mesirat jama’at al-ikhwan al-Muslimeen fi Suria (Private publisher, July 1998). See Alison Pargeter, op. cit., pp. 85–7.
8. Abu Mus’ab al-Suri, op. cit., p. 13.
9. Interview with Muhammed Riyad al-Shuqfah, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
10. Interview with Walid Safour, London, 22 Sept. 2011.
11. Interview with Muhammed Riyad al-Shuqfah, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
12. Interview with Abdel Halim Khaddam, Paris, 23 June 2011.
13. Interview with a source close to the Syrian Brotherhood, name withheld on request, Nov. 2011.
14. Adnan Saadeddine quoted in Chris Kutchera, “Whither the Syrian Muslim Brothers”, Middle East Magazine (Apr. 1988), available online at: http://www.chris-kutschera.com/A/syrian_brothers.htm
15. Interview with Muhammed Riyad al-Shuqfah, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
16. Interview with Zouheir Salem, London, 9 Sept. 2011.
17. Ali Duba quoted in Chris Kutschera, “Syrie: l’éclipse des Frères Musul-mans”, Cahiers de l’Orient (No. 7, Volume 3, 1987), also available online at: http://www.chris-kutschera.com/syrie_eclipse_fm.htm
18. Interview with Ali Sadreddine al-Bayanouni, London, 30 Nov. 2011.
19. Interview with Muhammed Riyad al-Shuqfah, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
20. Adnan Saadeddine, Al-Ikhwam al-Muslimoon Fi Souriya: Muthakerat wa Thekrayat (“The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria: Memoirs and Reminiscences”) (Amman: Dar Ammar, 2010), pp. 95–6.
21. Chris Kutschera, “Syrie: l’éclipse des Frères Musulmans”, Cahiers de l’Orient (No. 7, Volume 3, 1987), also available online at: http://www.chris-kutschera.com/syrie_eclipse_fm.htm
22. Interview with Zouheir Salem, London, 2 Oct. 2011.
23. Interview, name withheld on request, Aug. 2012.
24. The National Charter of Syria (London, Aug. 2002, copy given to the author), p. 2. For a detailed analysis of the National Honour Charter’s programme and ideology, see Thomas Pierret, “Le ‘projet politique pour la Syrie de l’avenir’ des Frères Musulmans”, in Baudouin Dupret et al (eds), La Syrie au présent (Paris: Sinbad Actes Sud, 2007), pp. 729–38.
25. See The Political Perspective for Syria: the Muslim Brotherhood’s Vision of the Future (London, Dec. 2004, copy given to the author), pp. 3–4 and The National Charter of Syria (London, Aug. 2002, copy given to the author), p. 6.
26. Interview with Zouheir Salem, London, 20 July 2011.
27. The Political Perspective for Syria: the Muslim Brotherhood’s Vision of the Future (London, Dec. 2004, copy given to the author), p. 2.
28. For more information on this period, see the excellent work of Teitelbaum: Joshua Teitelbaum, “The Muslim Brotherhood and the ‘Struggle for Syria’, 1947–1958: between Accommodation and Ideology”, Middle Eastern Studies (Vol. 40, No. 3, 2004).
29. Ali Sadreddine al-Bayanouni is quoted from an interview he gave to Le Monde, 13 May 1981, quoted by Rateb Boustani, “L’opposition islamique et l’alliance politique”, Chapter VII in Baudouin Dupret et al. (eds), La Syrie au présent (Paris: Sinbad Actes Sud, 2007), p. 747. Said Hawwa is quoted in Hans Günter Lobmeyer, “Al-dimuqratiyya hiyya al-hall? The Syrian Opposition at the End of the Asad Era”, in Eberhard Kienle (ed.), Contemporary Syria: Liberalization between Cold War and Cold Peace (London: British Academic Press, 1993), p. 90.
30. Hans Gunter Lobmeyer, “Al-dimuqratiyya hiyya al-hall? The Syrian Opposition at the End of the Asad Era”, in Eberhard Kienle (ed.), Contemporary Syria: Liberalization between Cold War and Cold Peace (London: British Academic Press, 1993), p. 90.
31. Interview with Zouheir Salem, London, 20 July 2011.
32. The National Charter of Syria (London, Aug. 2002, copy given to the author), p. 1.
33. Ibid., pp. 2–3.
34. Ibid., p. 5.
35. Ali Sadreddine al-Bayanouni quoted in Itzchak Weismann (2010), op. cit., p. 8.
36. Interview with Zouheir Salem, London, 20 July 2011.
37. Ali Sadreddine al-Bayanouni quoted in Piotr Zalewski, “Islamic Evolution”, Foreign Policy, 13/2011.
38. The Political Perspective for Syria: The Muslim Brotherhood’s Vision of the Future (London, Dec. 2004, copy given to the author), p. 5.
39. Interview with Zouheir Salem, London, 20 July 2011.
40. US Embassy cable to State Department, “The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood”, DAMASCUS 575, 26 Feb. 1985.
41. The estimate of 10,000 prisoners suspected of belonging to the Muslim Brotherhood comes from a spokesman for the Fighting Vanguard, quoted in US Embassy cable to State Department, “The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood”, DAMASCUS 575, 26 Feb. 1985. For the figures related to Hafiz al-Assad’s release of political prisoners, see: Eyal Zisser, “Syria, the Baath Regime and the Islamic Movement: Stepping on a New Path?”, The Muslim World (Vol. 95, No. 1, 2005), p. 49.
42. Eyal Zisser, op. cit., p. 52.
43. Interview with Muhammed Riyad al-Shuqfah, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
44. Eyal Zisser, op. cit., p. 55.
45. Joshua Landis, “The Syrian Opposition: The Struggle for Unity and Relevance, 2003–2008” in Fred H. Lawson (ed.), Demistifying Syria (London: Saqi Books, 2009), pp. 130–31.
46. Riyad Seif quoted in US Embassy cable to State Department, “SARG is feeling confident is the message to Staffdel Talwar”, 06DAMASCUS5349, 3 Dec. 2006.
47. Interview with Abdel Halim Khaddam, Paris, 23 June 2011.
48. Interview with Obeida Nahas, London 23 June 2011.
49. US Embassy cable to State Department, “Khaddam’s and Bayanouni’s Faustian pact”, C-NE6–00262, 18 Apr. 2006.
50. Interview with Abdul Baasit Sieda, Tunis, 24 Feb. 2012.
51. Joshua Landis, “The Syrian Opposition: the Struggle for Unity and Relevance, 2003–2008” in Fred H. Lawson (2009), op. cit., p. 134.
52. Interview with Obeida Nahas, London, 23 June 2011.
53. US Embassy cable to State Department, “Khaddam’s and Bayanouni’s Faustian pact”, C-NE6–00262, 18 Apr. 2006.
54. Interviews with Ali Sadreddine al-Bayanouni, London, 30 Nov. 2011.
55. Interview with Abdel Halim Khaddam, Paris, 23 June 2011.
56. Interview with Obeida Nahas, London, 23 June 2011.
9. UPRISINGS IN SYRIA: A REVENGE ON HISTORY
1. “American Ambassador to Syria visits focal point in uprising”, New York Times, 7 July 2011.
2. “1982 Hama massacre looms over Syria revolt”, The Guardian, 2 Feb. 2012.
3. “Assad: Challenge Syria at your peril”, Daily Telegraph, 29 Oct. 2011.
4. The 23 December 2011 terrorist attacks in Damascus, which killed forty-four people, was claimed by the “Syrian Muslim Brotherhood” on the website www.ikhwan-sy.com whereas the organization’s actual website is www.ikhwansyria.com. It is reported that the fake Brotherhood website was set up by Emile Qass Nasrallah, a journalist who bought the website rights for a year only and was working for Dounia TV, a television channel owned by Sleiman Mahmoud Maarouf—a major financier of the pro-regime shabihha militias and a close relative of one of Bashar al-Assad’s closest security advisers, General Mohammed Nasif Khayr Bek. For more on this story, see Ignace Leverrier, “Le terrorisme frappe à nouveau en Syrie. Mais lequel?”, Un Oe
il sur la Syrie, 8 Jan. 2012. Despite the Brotherhood’s repeated assertions that it was not behind the December 2011 terrorist attacks, some media outlets nonetheless published the story as it was initially presented to them. See, for instance, “Syria’s Muslim Brotherhood claims responsibility for deadly blasts”, Herald Sun, 25 Dec. 2011. It was only a few days later that most media reported the mistake. See, for example: “Muslim Brotherhood denies Syria bombing claim”, Al-Watan Daily, 25 Dec. 2011.
5. Interview with Moti’ al-Batin, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
6. Ibid.
7. Nir Rosen, “Islamism and the Syrian Uprisings”, Foreign Policy, 8 March 2012.
8. “The burial brigade of Homs: An executioner for Syria’s rebels tells his story”, Spiegel Online, 29 March 2012.
9. Interview with Walid Safour, London, 22 Sept. 2011.
10. “Promise of Arab Spring is threatened by divisions”, New York Times, 21 May 2011.
11. “Syrian Sunni cleric threatens: ‘we shall mince [the Alawis] in meat grinders”, MEMRI TV Videos, 13 July 2011. The video is available online at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bwz8i3osHww
12. “As Syrian war drags on, jihadists take bigger role”, New York Times, 29 July 2012.
13. Asher Berman, Rebel Groups in Jebel al-Zawiyah (Washington: Institute for the Study of War, 26 July 2012), p. 6.
14. “As Syrian war drags on, jihadists take bigger role”, New York Times, 29 July 2012.
15. Nir Rosen, “Islamism and the Syrian Uprisings”, Foreign Policy, 8 March 2012.
16. Even though the Jabhat al-Nusrah is often described in the media as an al-Qaeda’s offshoot inside Syria, some analysts have cast doubts on the group’s origins and, in some cases, have even suggested it might have been initially set up and encouraged by the Syrian regime. For instance, see “Are reports of al-Qaida in Syria exaggerated?” Der Spiegel, 15 Aug. 2012.
17. “Al-Nusrah Front claims suicide attack”, Long War Journal, 26 Feb. 2012.
18. “Syria conflict: jihadists’ role growing”, BBC, 2 Aug. 2012.
19. “Abu Mus’ab al-Suri released from custody: report”, Long War Journal, 6 Feb. 2012.
20. Interview with Muhammed Riyad al-Shuqfah, Istanbul, 9 Sept. 2011.
21. Ali al-Bayanouni, “No one owns the Syrian uprisings”, The Guardian, 16 Apr. 2011.
22. Interview with Ahmed al-Uthman, Paris, 8 Sept. 2012.
23. Kamal Labwani quoted in “Islamists seek influence in Syria uprisings”, AP, 23 March 2012.
24. Kamal Labwani quoted in “Syria opposition group is routed and divided”, New York Times, 14 March 2012.
25. Fawaz al-Tello quoted in “Syria’s Muslim Brotherhood rise from the ashes”, Reuters, 6 May 2012.
26. “Ghalioun emails: Qatari money and lost democracy”, Al-Akhbar, 19Apr. 2012.
27. Othman al-Bidewi quoted in “Syria’s Muslim Brotherhood rise from the ashes”, Reuters, 6 May 2012.
28. Interview with Obeida Nahas, London, 12 Sept. 2012.
29. Farouk Tayfour, for instance, explained his stance clearly in February 2012: “The Muslim Brotherhood’s position hasn’t changed since the 2001 document on renouncing the use of violence was signed. When the revolution started, we always insisted on its peacefulness and we still do. Violence on the opposition’s side in Syria comes from individual acts and small groups who have no ties whatsoever to the Muslim Brotherhood”. Interview with Farouk Tayfour, Tunis, 24 Feb. 2012.
30. Interview with Sayyed al-Sibai, Tunis, 24 Feb. 2012.
31. Interview with Ashraf Almoqdad, Tunis, 24 Feb. 2012.
32. “Covenant and Charter of the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria” (London, 25 March 2012, copy given to the author).
33. Interview with Ali Sadreddine al-Bayanouni, email exchange, 14 May 2012.
34. “Muslim Brotherhood seeks to fill post-Assad vacuum”, Daily Star, 10 Aug. 2012.
35. Moulhem al-Droubi quoted in “Syria’s Muslim Brotherhood is gaining influence over anti-Assad revolt”, Washington Post, 13 May 2012.
36. Rebel commander Abu Mussab quoted in “Muslim Brotherhood undermining Syrian rebel unity”, Al-Akhbar, 20 Aug. 2012.
37. Moulhem al-Droubi quoted in “Syrian Muslim Brotherhood to launch political party”, Ahram Online, 20 July 2012.
38. See, for instance: Hassan Hassan, “Syrians are torn between a despotic regime and a stagnant opposition”, The Guardian, 23 Aug. 2012.
39. Moulhem al-Droubi quoted in “Syrian Muslim Brotherhood to launch Islamist party”, Al-Akhbar, 20 July 2012.
40. Hassan Hassan, “Syrians are torn between a despotic regime and a stagnant opposition”, The Guardian, 23 Aug. 2012.
41. Interview with Farouk Tayfour, Tunis, 24 Feb. 2011.
42. Khaled Khoja quoted in Piotr Zalewski, “Islamic evolution”, Foreign Policy, 11/08/2011.
43. Interview with Obeida Nahas, Tunis, 24 Feb. 2012.
44. Interview with Hassan al-Hachimi, Tunis, 24 Feb. 2012.
45. For an excellent analysis of the role played by Syrian ulama in the current protests, see Thomas Pierret, “Syrie: l’Islam dans la revolution”, Politique Etrangère (Vol. 4, 2011), pp. 879–91.
46. US Embassy cable to State Department, “Murky alliances: Muslim Brotherhood, the Movement for Justice and Democracy and the Damascus Declaration”, DE RUEHDN 000477, 8 July 2009.
47. Interview with Muhammed Hawari, Aachen, 19 Dec. 2011.
48. Interview with Malik al-Abdeh, London, 6 Dec. 2011.
49. Interview with Malik al-Abdeh, London, 6 Dec. 2011.
50. US Embassy cable to State Department, “Movement for Justice and Development seeking to expand role in Syria”, DE RUEHDM 00185, 3 Nov. 2009.
51. Interview with Malik al-Abdeh, London, 6 Dec. 2011.
52. Thomas Pierret, “Syrie: l’Islam dans la revolution”, Politique Etrangère (Vol. 4, 2011), pp. 879–891.
EPILOGUE
1. Interview, name withheld on request, Feb. 2012.
INDEX
al-Abdeh, Anas: chief coordinator of Damascus Declaration, 199
co-founder of MJD, 96, 198–9
family of, 96
leader of MJD, 199
al-Abdeh, Malik: 199–200
co-founder of MJD, 96, 198
family of, 96
al-Abdeh, Muhammed: 86
background of, 96
family of, 198
Abi Dharr: influence of, 58
Abduh, Muhammad: 7–8, 83–4
ideology of, 6–7
influence of, 9, 12, 21
Abdulhamid II, Sultan: 10, 84
al-Abidden, Muhammed Surur Zein: 86
background of, 96
Abu, Husni: leader of Fighting Vanguard, 58, 105
Abu Ghuddah, Sheikh Abdel Fatah: 94, 101, 164, 167, 169, 175
death of, 175
exile of, 133
leader of Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, 97, 171
al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din: 7–8, 83
background of, 5
influence of, 5–6, 9, 20–1
Afghanistan: borders of, 144
Soviet Invasion of (1979–89), 99, 132, 141–3, 147, 204
Aflaq, Michel: 129
co-founder of Ba’ath Party, 28, 37, 44, 46, 52, 68
Alawis: xii–xiii, 49, 56, 58, 66–8, 71, 73–4, 76–7, 111, 133, 147
condemnation of, 64–5, 73, 101, 185, 202
origins of, 65, 72
prevalence in Ba’ath Party, 69–70, 73, 159, 172
prevalence in Syrian military, 68–70, 75
territory inhabited by, xii, 25, 56, 64, 74–5, 184–6, 188
Aleppo Artillery School Massacre (1979): 73, 120, 125
perpetrators of, 73, 105, 119
political impact of, 58, 74–5, 109, 111–12
Algeria: French occupation of (1830–1962), 9
Amal: 159
Anas, Abdullah: family of, 143
Arab Ba’ath Socialist Party: formation of (1953), 37, 52, 68
> Arab-Israeli War (1948–9): belligerents of, 28–9
political impact of, 28
Arab League: Bludan Conference, 32
Arab Renaissance Society: members of, 10
Arab Socialist Party: members of, 28, 37, 138
merger with Ba’ath Party (1953), 37, 52, 68
Arab Spring: xi, 181, 191, 195
Egyptian Revolution (2011), xi, 181, 183, 194
Libyan Civil War (2011), 183
Syrian Civil War (2011–), xi, 159, 181, 193, 204
Tunisian Revolution (2010–11), xi, 181, 183, 194
Arafat, Yasser: leader of PLO, 72
Army of Muhammed: members of, 150
al-Aroor, Adnan: 185
background of, 186
Ashmi, Muhammad Ali: 163
Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria Page 32
