An Inoffensive Rearmament

by Frank Kowalski

  “Hattori Agency” (Hattori Kikan), 152–54

  Hayashi, Keizō: accomplishments, 71–72; American advisers and, 93–94, 118; appointment to head General Group, NPR, 66–68, 69; career, 66, 68, 91; criticism of, 71; discipline, 127–28; on emperor, 114–15, 120; inspection tours, 114; Masuhara and, 67, 72, 97–98; May Day demonstrations and, 168; peace treaty commemoration, 165; Pulliam and, 68–69; on spirit of soldiers, 109–11; weapons plans, 134–35

  Hayashi, Senjurō, 114

  heitai (Imperial soldiers): later service in NPR, 99; new recruits, 122; self-sacrifice, 116–17, 118–19; spirit, 92, 109, 111–12, 116–17, 119; toughness, 178; treatment by officers, 127; use of term, 121, 122. See also Imperial Army

  Higashikuni, Naruhiko, Prince, 35

  Hirohito, Emperor: abdication rumors, 165; Constitution Day ceremony, 169–70; constitutional reform and, 39; Hayashi and, 66, 114–15, 120; MacArthur and, 74; surrender, 158. See also emperor

  Hirota, Kōki, 50

  Hokkaidō, 83, 114, 123–24, 134–35

  Honna, Fuminori, 91–92

  Hoover, Herbert C., 12

  Imai, Takeo, 155

  Imoto, Kumao, 63, 64–65

  Imperial Army: demobilization, 56, 59; discipline, 178; “Manchuria Clique,” 62; misconceptions of strength, 113–14; as model for NPR, 92–93; national importance, 122; noncommissioned officers, 99, 127; officers, 127; spirit, 92, 109, 110, 111–12, 113–14, 116, 119; strength, 92; uniforms, 126; war in China, 52, 119, 155; weapons, 92–93; Yoshida and, 50. See also heitai

  imperial family. See emperor

  Imperial forces, former officers: acceptance into NPR, 105–7, 117–18, 130–31, 148, 150–51, 154, 176; beggars, 161; criticism of NPR, 70–71, 72, 102, 152, 153, 154; Diet members, 155–56; divisions among, 70, 150–51; efforts to bring into NPR, 57–58, 60–65, 104–6; excluded from NPR, 29, 50, 56–57, 69, 100–101, 102, 103–4, 105–6; influence on occupation, 59; intelligence activities, 59; military know-how, 147; in rightist groups, 148–50, 151–54; senior, 148–49, 150; views of NPR, 150–51; war crimes trials, 35, 148, 155; worldview, 147, 150, 151–52. See also Japanese Demobilization Bureau; purged officers

  Imperial General Staff, 57, 61, 62, 117–18, 155

  Imperial Household Agency, 66, 91, 114

  Imperial Navy, 56, 59, 99, 113, 122. See also Imperial forces, former officers

  Imperial Palace Plaza, 15, 167, 169–70

  Imperial Rescript of Emperor Meiji, 116–17, 118–19, 178

  Initial Postsurrender Policy for Japan, 35, 56–57

  Intelligence Section (G-2), GHQ, 28, 58, 59, 63, 64, 65, 69. See also Public Safety Division; Willoughby, Charles A.

  interpreters, 48, 60–61, 85–86, 93, 94, 111–12

  Ishiwara, Kanji, 150, 155–57, 164

  Izeki, Yujirō, 97, 98, 104–5

  Japan: agriculture, 2, 3, 18–19, 159; conditions at end of war, 1–4; food supply system, 2, 3–4, 17–18, 159, 161; industries, 2, 3, 93, 161; life expectancies, 160; military influence, 147–48; mutual security pact with United States, 163, 180–81; national security threats, 82–83, 136, 163; political failures, 176–77; population growth, 2, 160; rebuilding, 1, 3, 5–6; sovereignty regained, 146, 158–65; surrender, 4, 158, 160; trust in authority, 141; U.S. bases, 41–42, 166, 181. See also Diet; emperor; Imperial forces; occupation

  Japan Communist Party (Nihon Kyōsantō): acceptance of emperor, 115; Diet members, 13, 133, 166, 169; MacArthur’s purge of Central Committee, 16, 17; May Day demonstrations, 166–69; members, 130; opposition to rearmament, 138; popular support, 4, 13–14, 51; potential infiltration of NPR, 69–70; publications, 162; surveillance by Demobilization Bureau, 59

  Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF; Jieitai), 42–43, 169, 176, 178, 181

  Japan Socialist Party. See Socialist Party

  Japanese Commission on the Constitution, 37

  Japanese Demobilization Bureau (Nihon Fukuinkyoku), 28, 59–61, 62–64, 65, 69, 153

  Japanese Supreme Court, 41–42

  Jimmu Tennō, 115

  Johnson, Louis A., 13, 19, 20

  Johnson, Lyndon B., xx

  Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S., 8, 13

  JSDF. See Japan Self-Defense Forces

  Kennedy, John F., xix

  Kimura, Tokutarō, 137, 138

  Kitamura (interpreter), 111–12, 130

  Knowlton, Charles E., 30

  Kojiki, 115

  Konoe, Fumimaro, Prince, 35

  Korean War: Chinese strength, 154; effects in Japan, 7, 46, 146; Japanese support of U.S. military, 7–8; North Korean victories, 8, 51–52, 107–8; potential use of NPR, 52–54, 152; Republic of Korea Headquarters, 21–22; surprise attack, 20; U.S. deployments from Japan, 9, 21, 23, 30–31, 82, 83; U.S. units, 8, 9; Yoshida on, 1, 4, 51–52, 55, 144

  Kowalski, Frank, Jr.: assignments in Japan, xviii, 21, 22–23, 29–30; as CASA chief of staff, 23, 73–74, 75–77; childhood and family, xiv–xv; children, xvii, xviii, xxii; death, xxii; education, xiv–xvi; health, xvii–xviii, xxi–xxii; inspection tours, 94–95, 114, 134–35; interest in Japan, xx–xxi; inventions, xxi; marriage, xvi; military career, xv–xix; political career, xix, xx–xxi, 159–60; political views, xx

  Kowalski, Helene Amelia Bober, xvi, xxi, xxii

  Kurushima, Tsuneki, 149

  labor unions, 166, 169, 175–76

  land reform, 6

  language issues, 93–95, 98, 99. See also interpreters

  Liberal Party (Jiyūtō), 13, 136, 162

  loyalty, 116–17

  MAAG. See Military Advisory Assistance Group

  MacArthur, Douglas: accomplishments, 5; Asian defense plan, 20; chief of staff, 74–75; inaccessibility, 74–75; on Japan Communist Party, 13–14; Japanese constitution and, 34, 35–39, 40–41, 142, 165, 172; Japanese view of, xx–xxi, 18–19; Korean War, 8–9, 22, 51; letters, 25; life in Japan, 18; National Police Reserve and, 25–27, 31, 41, 174–75; on occupation, 6–7; on peace treaty, 12, 162; police force expansion, 25–27; rearmament order, 10; relations with troops, 18; relieved of command by Truman, 78, 147; Whitney and, 28, 74; Willoughby and, 28, 58, 74. See also supreme commander for Allied powers

  Mainichi Shimbun, 37, 38, 141, 142

  Makino, Nobuaki, Count, 49

  Manchukuo, army of, 100–101

  “Manchuria Clique,” 62

  Mao Tse-tung, 12, 145

  Maritime Safety Board, police forces, 26

  Marquat, William F., 74

  Masuda, Kaneshichi, 162

  Masuhara, Keikichi: appointment, 84; criticism of, 71; Hayashi and, 67, 72, 97–98; headquarters staff, 87–88, 90; inspection tours, 134–35; NPR organization and, 86–87; officer appointments, 100–101, 104; peace treaty commemoration, 164–65; personality, 84–85; on rearmament, 143; relations with Americans, 86, 109; on spirit of soldiers, 109; uniform designs, 125–27; weapons plans, 134–35

  Matsumoto, Jōji, 36–38, 39, 41

  May Day demonstrations, 166–69

  Meiji, Emperor: birthday, 40; Imperial Rescript, 116–17, 118–19, 178

  Meiji constitution, 37, 39, 115

  Meiji Restoration, 49, 164

  Miki, Takeo, 162

  militarists: bushidō and, 113; excluded from NPR, 50; ideology, 116–17; in postwar period, 148–57; preventing resurgence, 87; support of rearmament, 54; during war, 54–55. See also Imperial forces, former officers; nationalist organizations; purge

  Military Advisory Assistance Group (MAAG): Kowalski as acting chief, 87; officers, 29–30; potential leadership of NPR, 98; relations with civilian leaders of NPR, 84–85, 86, 88, 103, 125, 126, 164; training role, 99. See also Civil Affairs Section Annex; Shepard, Whitfield P.

  military spirit. See seishin kyōiku

  Murphy, Robert D., 158

  mutual security pact, 163, 180–81

  Nambara, Shigeru, 13, 15

  Napoleon Bonaparte, 109

  National Defense Council, 151, 154

  National Police Re
serve, director general. See Masuhara, Keikichi

  National Police Reserve (NPR; Kokka Keisatsu Yobitai): accomplishments, 177–81; American advisers, 78–81, 98, 101, 103, 118; American officers on staff, 29–31, 45–47, 73–74, 82, 98, 100, 140; Americans in charge, 73, 78, 81–82; assistant director general, 84, 96, 97, 133–34; Basic Plan, 23–24, 27; cabinet supervision, 97; cadre list, 61; camps, 77–81, 83, 94–95, 123, 134; conference on operational policies, 31; corruption allegations, 70; criticism of, 27, 70–71, 72, 123, 129, 131, 152, 153, 154; differences from Imperial forces, 177–80; discipline, 42–43, 178; equipment and supplies, 27, 81, 82, 83, 95; establishment, 25–26, 31–32, 41, 87–88; evaluation, 102, 106–7; expansion, 72, 131, 180; General Group, 66–69, 71–72, 91–92, 96, 98; goals, 51, 53; headquarters, 30–31, 73–74, 86–89; headquarters staff, 87–89, 90, 94, 95, 96, 98, 104–5; induction centers, 61–62, 77–79; infantry divisions, 27–28; legality, 27, 41, 173, 174–75; manuals, 93–94, 103, 173; military nature concealed, 27, 93–94, 121, 122–23, 132–33, 173; need for, 171–72, 173–74; number of personnel, 87–88, 180; organizing, 27–28, 77–83, 85, 86–89, 92–93, 98–101; as police force, 86–87, 88, 93–94, 101, 132; potential communist infiltration, 69–70; potential use in Korea, 52–54, 152; prime ministerial control, 28; public perceptions, 176; readiness, 102, 104, 106; relations with people, 122–25, 127–28, 139, 140–42; as self-defense force, 53, 139, 173; Shepard’s role, 23, 28–31; significance for rearmament, 137–38, 172; use in domestic disturbances, 167, 168–69; Yoshida’s policies, 52, 55, 136–37, 143. See also Civil Affairs Section Annex; weapons; yobitai

  National Rural Police (Kokka Chihō Keisatsu): American supervision, 60; director general, 68–69, 86; officers transferred to NPR, 82, 90; recruiting for NPR, 60, 78, 79, 80; size, 25

  National Safety Agency (Kokka Hoancho), 87

  National Safety Force (NSF; Kokka Hoantai), 72, 131, 169

  nationalist organizations, 148–50, 151–54, 155–56, 157. See also militarists

  newspapers: articles on NPR, 124–25, 127; circulation, 161; criticism of NPR, 70–71, 129, 131; public opinion polls, 140–43

  Ninigi no Mikoto, 115

  Nippon Times, 160

  Nisei interpreters, 85–86

  Nishiura, Susumu, 63, 64–65

  Nixon, Richard M., 172

  noncommissioned officers: in Imperial Army, 99, 127; in NPR, 102, 127, 139, 178

  North Atlantic Treaty, 11

  North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 12

  North Korea, 8, 51–52, 107–8. See also Korean War

  Nosaka, Sanzō, 115

  NPR. See National Police Reserve

  NSF. See National Safety Force

  nuclear weapons, 43, 181

  O’Brien, John W. A., 24

  occupation: accomplishments, 5–7, 160, 171–72; American staff, 6; bureaucratic resistance, 49; conqueror’s mindset, 53–54, 85; effects of Korean War, 9, 21, 146; end of, 158–65; Japanese bureaucrats and, 48–49; life of American troops, 17, 18; MacArthur on, 6–7; military oversight of government, 171; mistakes made, 172–77; objectives, 4–5, 35; political parties and, 175–76; public opinion on, 57, 143; tasks, 17–18; troop levels, 19. See also supreme commander for Allied powers

  officers, Imperial. See Imperial forces, former officers

  officers, NPR: appointments, 50, 69, 89–90, 100–101, 176; arrogant, 127–28; captains, 100, 103, 127–28, 129–31; from civilian backgrounds, 101, 102, 103; democratic commitment, 139–40; differences from Imperial officers, 105–7; experience, 81–82, 91, 105; former Imperial officers as, 105–7, 117–18, 130–31, 148, 150–51, 154, 176; General Group, 91–92, 96, 98; from National Rural Police, 82, 90; noncommissioned, 102, 127, 139, 178; purged officers ineligible, 29, 56–57, 61, 69, 100–101, 102, 103–4, 105–6; recruiting, 60–62, 65–66, 69, 103; relations with troops, 178; small-unit leaders, 99–100, 102, 103, 129–30; staff, 100; training, 99–100, 103, 104, 105, 129–30; uniforms, 91–92

  Ōhashi, Takeo, 31, 47–48, 97, 100–101, 136, 168

  Okazaki, Katsuo, 31, 84

  Ōkuma, Shigenobu, 149

  Ōsaka, 1, 4, 9, 14, 68, 161, 175–76

  pacifism, 157

  patriotism: American, 110; Japanese, 46, 112, 113, 119–20

  peace treaty: hopes for, 7; negotiations, 12, 13; ratification, 166; unilateral, 13, 20, 162–63

  Percy, Charles, xix

  police forces: expansion, 25–27; municipal, 25, 28, 167, 168; rearmament through, 24–27, 45–47, 137–38, 172. See also National Police Reserve; National Rural Police

  Potsdam Declaration, 38, 56, 146

  Progressive Party (Kaishintō), 138, 162

  protests, 14–15, 166–69

  public opinion: on disarmament and rearmament, 29, 52–53, 139, 140–43, 165; on NPR, 141, 173; on occupation, 57, 143; polls, 140–43

  Public Safety Division, 31, 60

  Pulliam, Howard E., 31, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 68–69, 70

  purge: benefits, 57; exceptions, 62–63, 65, 100–101; order for, 35, 56; people included, 5, 57, 59–60; supporters, 148

  purged officers: ineligibility for NPR, 29, 56–57, 61, 69, 100–101, 102, 103–4, 105–6; number of, 148; removals from purge lists, 104–6, 130–31, 146–47, 148, 154. See also Imperial forces, former officers; militarists

  radicals, 3–4. See also communism

  Ratcliff, Clifton E., 30, 31, 75–76, 80, 81

  rearmament: constitutional change needed, 165; denial, 132–33, 173; inoffensive, 181; legality, 10, 27, 32, 46, 172; MacArthur’s order, 10, 25–26, 55; mistakes made, 172–77; of NPR, 27, 43, 101, 132–33, 135; pace of, 27, 179–80; through police forces, 24–27, 45–47, 137–38, 172; public discussions, 135–39, 140; public opinion on, 29, 139, 140–43; Socialist opposition, 52, 132, 136, 137, 138, 140, 166, 173–74; supporters, 54, 152, 153, 157; through police forces, 24–27, 45–47, 137–38, 172; U.S. pressure, 140, 144, 152; women’s opposition, 52–53, 142, 143, 165; Yoshida on, 52–53, 136–38, 141–42, 143–45, 163. See also weapons

  Republic of Korea (ROK) Headquarters, 21–22

  rice, 3–4, 159. See also agriculture; food supply system

  Ridgway, Matthew B., 78, 104

  rightist organizations, 148–50, 151–54, 155–57. See also militarists

  Roberts, William L., 107

  Robertson, Frank, 111

  Russia. See Soviet Union

  SACB. See Subversive Activities Control Board

  safes, 94–95

  Saitō, Noboru, 68, 69, 86

  Sakhalin, 82–83, 136

  samurai, 111–13, 131. See also bushidō

  Sauer, Colonel, 99

  SCAP. See supreme commander for Allied powers

  seishin kyōiku (military spirit), 109–14, 119–20

  self-defense, right of, 33, 39–40, 41, 42, 136–37, 138

  self-defense forces, 40, 53, 139, 173. See also Japan Self-Defense Forces

  self-sacrifice, 118–19

  seppuku, 130, 158

  Shellenberger, Colonel, 91–92

  Shepard, Whitfield P.: at CASA headquarters, 75–77; as chief, Civil Affairs Section, xviii, 21; interpreter, 60–61, 85, 86; Kowalski and, 21, 22–23, 47, 52; MacArthur and, 75; Masuhara and, 84–85, 86, 88, 104, 125, 126; National Police Reserve and, 23, 28–31, 60–61, 63–65, 66, 67, 73; personality, 75; Yoshida and, 45, 48

  Shidehara, Kijurō, Baron, 36–37, 39, 165

  Shiga, Yōshio, 4, 14

  Shimbun Yoron Chōsa Renmei, 142, 143

  Shintō, 112

  Socialist Party (Nihon Shakaitō): American view of, 175–76; criticism of NPR, 133–34; criticism of positions, 174; Diet members, 31, 43, 133–34, 169; end of occupation and, 162; left and right wings, 162, 166; opposition to rearmament, 52, 132, 136, 137, 138, 140, 166, 173–74; on peace treaty negotiations, 13; Yoshida and, 174

  soldiers. See heitai; yobitai

  South Korea, 20, 107–8, 127. See also Korean War

  S
oviet Union: Cold War, 11, 12, 146, 162; Japanese peace treaty and, 12, 13, 164; Japanese rearmament and, 53; military forces in Far East Asia, 136; representatives in Japan, 16–17; Sakhalin, 82–83, 136; total diplomacy against, 12, 13, 16–17, 20

  special vehicles, tanks as, 81, 94, 173

  spirit. See seishin kyōiku

  State Department, U.S., 35, 162

  State-War-Navy Coordination Committee (SWNCC), 34–35, 37

  Stevens, Kenneth, 79–81

  student protests, 14–15, 167, 169

  Subversive Activities Control Board (SACB), xix–xx

  Subversive Acts Prevention Bill, 166, 169

  supreme commander for Allied powers (SCAP): anticommunist campaign, 14–16, 20; authority, 32; Initial Postsurrender Policy for Japan, 35, 56–57; objectives, 4–5. See also General Headquarters; MacArthur, Douglas; occupation

  Suzuki (chief of police), 68–69

  SWNCC. See State-War-Navy Coordination Committee

  Takayanagi, Kenzō, 37

  tanks, 81, 94, 134, 135, 136, 153, 173

  tennō. See emperor

  Thoulton, Colonel, 100

  “Three Human Bombs” story, 118–19

  Tōhoku University, 14

  Tōjō, Hideki, 62, 63, 156, 157

  Tōkyō Maritime Training School, 30–31

  Tōkyō Metropolitan Police, 25, 167 total diplomacy, 12, 13, 16–17, 20 training: Advisory Group role, 99; criticism of, 153; of NPR officers, 99–100, 103, 104, 105, 129–30; of NPR recruits, 79, 83, 93, 98, 99–100, 101, 104, 106–7, 129–30; of U.S. Army, 17, 18

  Truman, Harry S, 11, 13, 78, 147

  Truman Doctrine, 11

  Tsuji, Masanobu, 155–56, 157

  uniforms, 91–92, 125–27

  United Nations, 12–13, 46

  United States: ambassadors to Japan, 50, 158; Asian involvement, 7, 8–9, 19–20; bases in Japan, 41–42, 166, 181; civilian control of military, 89, 179; economic power, 19–20; foreign policy in Cold War, 11, 12, 13, 16–17, 20; military cooperation with Japan, 85, 93; military officer appointments and promotions, 89, 176; military readiness, 19–20, 153–54; patriotism, 110; peace treaty with Japan, 13, 20, 162–63; presidential power, 118; security pact with Japan, 163, 180–81; Truman Doctrine, 11. See also occupation

  U.S. Army: 1st Cavalry Division, 9; 7th Cavalry Regiment, 30–31; 7th Infantry Division, 9, 82, 83; 24th Infantry Division, 8, 9; 25th Infantry Division, 9; cadre system, 82; divisions in Japan, 9, 17–18, 19; Eighth Army, 8, 99–100; Kowalski’s career, xv–xix; organization, 93; training in Japan, 17, 18. See also Korean War