I am especially grateful to the many colleagues who read the book in manuscript. Ann Braude, Jonathan Ebel, Harry S. Stout, Jonathan Yeager, and Malika Zeghal commented on individual chapters, and Kathleen Cummings, Mark Noll, Bruce Hindmarsh, Philippa Koch, and W. Clark Gilpin read the entire book. I could not have asked for more insightful or generous readers.
I would like to thank John Demos and Alan Sachs for including this book in their series New Directions in Narrative History, and my editor at Yale University Press, Christopher Rogers, for his encouragement. Everyone at the Press has been a pleasure to work with, including Christina Tucker, who provided valuable help with images, and Susan Laity, whose graceful copyediting made this a far better book. I am also deeply grateful to Andrew Wylie, my literary agent, and Scott Moyers for their indispensable support and advice.
I am fortunate to work with a marvelous group of colleagues at the Divinity School. Susan Schreiner shared her research on certainty and experience in the early modern era; Curtis Evans encouraged me to keep writing; and even in retirement Martin Marty gave me the gift of his immense curiosity. Clark Gilpin, my first dean at the University of Chicago Divinity School, has been a cherished colleague for more than twenty years. Clark and I have taught classes together, co-edited a book, and traded ideas during workshops and hallway conversations, and his creativity has never ceased to inspire me. Richard Rosengarten, my second dean, and Margaret Mitchell, my third, have made the Divinity School a wonderful place to work. I have deeply appreciated their friendship.
Many other friends have encouraged me along the way. Tom Tweed was my high school teacher for only a brief time many years ago, but he has never stopped teaching me about either the study of religion or the meaning of intellectual generosity. Jon Butler believed in this book from the beginning, certain that the story of an obscure eighteenth-century woman would garner a wide readership. More than two decades ago Harry Stout introduced me to the historical study of religion in an extraordinary course titled “Puritanism and the American Religious Imagination”—a course whose themes continue to fascinate me. I have always treasured his advice, friendship, and kindness. Ellen and Phillip Boiselle have been so important to me that I think of them as part of my extended family. Ever since we met at Yale, Ellen has been the truest of friends, always there to share my joys and sorrows. I am also grateful to Carol and Kevin Sontheimer for their enduring support.
My deepest thanks go to several people who have never let me forget the abundance of love and grace in the world: my husband, Erik Sontheimer; our two daughters, Claire and Rachel; and my parents, to whom this book is dedicated.
Index
The abbreviation SO refers to Sarah Osborn.
Adams, Abigail, 303
Adams, John, 302–3
Addison, Joseph, 56
African Americans, free, 265, 294–95, 300, 313; and Enlightenment, 266 –67, 342–43; and evangelical movement, 174, 184, 250, 254–55, 265–66, 268, 273–75, 281, 286, 294, 312–13, 340; and literacy, 271–72, 294; missionaries, 270, 281–83, 294, 300, 313, 339; published authors, 184, 268, 286; and racism, 174, 266–68, 270, 272. See also antislavery movement; Free African Union Society; slaves
Alleine, Joseph, 137, 146–47
Allen, Clara, xii
Allen, Ethan, 309
Allen, Timothy, 31, 202
Almy, Mary, 298–99
Ammons, A. R., xiv
Anabaptists, 96
Anglicans, 21–23, 74, 99, 224, 292–93; and SO, 105, 107, 110, 254, 257; theology of, 36, 105, 209–10, 212, 214
Anthony, Sarah, 235
Anthony, Susanna (Susa), 56, 69, 87, 123, 216, 222, 235, 277, 280, 283, 294, 297, 305, 314, 319–20, 335; correspondence with SO, xii, 148–50, 152, 166, 176, 182, 314, 338–39; friendship with SO, 23, 123, 137, 141, 175, 177, 242, 259, 293, 307, 318–19
antislavery movement, 286, 295, 309–10, 313; and capitalism, 285–86; and Enlightenment, 286–87, 343; and S. Hopkins, 284–87, 309–11; and Quakers, 265, 284–86, 309–10
Appleton, Nathaniel, 157–58, 179
Aquinas, Thomas, 326
Arminianism, 21, 25–26, 100, 340
Arminius, Jacobus, 21, 25
Articles of Confederation, 308
assurance. See conversion; evangelical movement; Osborn, Sarah: conversion of
Astell, Mary, 187
Augustine of Hippo, 50, 82, 94
Austin, Punderson, 277
Bacon, Thomas, 240
Balch, William, 25
Baldwin, Ebenezer, 304
Ballard, Martha, 78
Bannister, John, 255
Bannister, Susanna, 275
baptism: disputes over, 108, 257, 259, 279; of slaves, 202–3, 243, 253, 265, 274–75. See also children
Baptists, 99, 293, 339; Separate, 257–58; Seventh-day, 257, 297, 306; and SO’s prayer meetings, 257–58, 260, 263, 274
Barlow, Philip L., 22
Baxter, Richard, 330, 339
Bebbington, David, 9, 103
Becker, Carl, 301
Bellamy, Joseph, 87, 171, 279, 309
benevolence: and Enlightenment, 8, 46, 59–60, 133, 214, 219, 227, 279; and evangelical movement, 60, 84, 86–87, 105, 133, 210, 213, 218–19, 226–27, 277, 279, 288, 341; of God, 8, 25, 59–60, 83–84, 86–87, 105, 133, 201, 214, 279, 341; and humanitarianism, 83–84, 87, 218–19, 226. See also Osborn, Sarah: and evangelical Christianity
Berkeley, George, 24, 63
Bernard of Clairvaux, 9
Bissell, Lydia, 318
Blair, Samuel, 48
Bloch, Ruth, 304
Bobey (slave), 201–2; and SO, 174–75, 234, 237–43, 246, 269–70, 288
Boston Massacre, 285, 292
Bowen, Nathan, 180
Bradstreet, Anne, 178
Brainerd, David, 42, 100–101
Brattle, William, 25
Brewster, Martha, 184
Brockwell, Charles, 268
Brooks, Thomas, 165–66
Brown, Moses, 294, 309
Bulkeley, Peter, 323
Bunyan, John, 41–42, 74, 116
Burr, Aaron, 42, 332
Burr, Esther Edwards, 50, 143, 182
Burr, Sally, 50
Bury, Elizabeth, 179–81
Caesar (slave), 255
Calvin, John, 36–37, 82, 197, 199, 214, 325–26, 329, 337
Calvinism, 9, 36, 38, 47, 82, 224, 279; challenges to, 21–22, 24–25, 28, 47, 83–84, 211–12, 214–15, 340–41; and SO, 37, 53, 105, 107, 129
capitalism, 194–95, 210, 340; and antislavery movement, 268, 284–86; and Enlightenment, xiii, 342; and evangelical movement, 7, 213, 268, 286, 324, 327, 340–41, 343
Caswell, William, 173
Catholics, 7, 74, 105, 111, 115, 159, 197, 199, 292, 307, 325, 337; and Seven Years’ War, 192, 203, 232, 252
Champlin, Christopher, 306
Channing, Duchess. See Quamine, Duchess
Channing, William, 282
charity. See benevolence
Chauncy, Charles, 16, 29, 117, 145, 151, 180, 195, 328–31
Chesebrough, Abigail, 234
Chesebrough, David, 234, 261
Chesebrough, Mrs., 259, 261
children, 57–58; apprenticeship of, 139–41, 174–75, 204, 245, 295; baptism of, 79, 143, 164, 257, 279; conversions of, 48–49, 143–44, 149; and covenant theology, 143, 155, 164; death of, 143–44, 158–60, 165–67; and evangelical movement, 35–38, 41–50, 57–58, 144, 225, 323, 331–33; literature for, 36, 38–41, 48, 254; punishment of, 49–53, 230–31. See also Osborn, Sarah: prayer meetings of
Chipman, Handley, 198
Chubb, Thomas, 24–25
Church, Benjamin, 123, 252
Church, Quamenee. See Quamine, John
Church of England. See Anglicans
Clap, Nathaniel, 107–8, 111, 113–14, 119, 173, 182, 197
Clap, Thomas, 25, 209
Clarke, Elizabeth, 314, 318
Clarke, Latham, 314, 318
&
nbsp; Clarke, Samuel, 25
Cleaveland, John, 42
Clinton, Henry, 295
Coercive Acts (1774), 292
Coffee, Charles, 236
Coggeshall, Nathaniel, 182, 235, 251–52, 254, 280, 283, 310; friendship with SO, 234, 259, 261, 264, 298, 307
Coggeshall, Thomas, 197
Cole, Nathan, 71, 87, 103, 109
Colman, Benjamin, 25, 208
communion, 94; exclusion from, 283, 292; and slaves, 202, 243, 252–53, 274; and SO, 105, 111, 113–15, 173
Conant, Sylvanus, 302–3
Congregationalists, 21–22, 35–36, 79, 99, 105, 107, 111, 113, 143, 160, 212, 253, 257, 263, 275–76, 283, 292–93; and African Americans, 265, 274; liberal, 25, 210, 214–15; Strict (see Separates). See also First Church of Christ
Constitution, U.S., 324
consumer revolution, xi, 26, 192–95, 200, 208, 308; and evangelical movement, 7, 11, 17, 99–100, 193, 207–8, 212–13, 318, 324, 343; and God, 84–85, 193, 208, 211; and human nature, 28, 47, 193, 207–8, 210–13, 225, 340
conversion: and African Americans, 202, 250, 265, 268, 271, 281, 313; and assurance, 96–100, 103–4, 121, 129, 148, 150; and authority, 11, 180–81, 265, 268; and children, 36, 47–48, 143–44; and church membership, 113–14; as crisis, 69, 71, 105, 110–11; at death, 146–47; and evangelical movement, 1, 10–11, 94–95, 100–101, 104, 143–45, 187, 219, 231–32, 265, 279, 282, 322; and individualism, 187; and language of experience, 94, 97–98, 100–101, 171, 265, 268, 322; narratives of, 19, 100, 103–4, 114, 252, 268; and Native Americans, 265; physical effects of, 29, 42, 102, 111, 116, 322; and Puritans, 95–97, 187; and revivals, 21, 29, 48, 55, 98, 102–3, 129, 143–45; and SO’s prayer meetings, 252–53, 274, 281; and women, 55, 180–81, 187. See also Osborn, Sarah: conversion of
Cooper, Samuel, 209, 227
Cornwallis, Charles, 308
covenant theology, 36–37, 155, 168, 187–88, 303, 309; and children, 44, 78–79, 143, 151, 162, 164, 168
Croswell, Andrew, 99
Cutler, Timothy, 22
Davenport, James, 15, 29
Davies, Samuel, 211, 265
Davis, David Brion, 285
death: and the body, 318, 322–23, 333; and burial, 156, 160–61; and children, 48, 77–78, 144, 165–67; evangelical views of, 80–81, 85, 88, 138–39, 141–42, 144, 146–47, 150–53, 155–57, 159–60, 162–69, 204, 222–223, 314, 317, 333–34. See also heaven; mourning
Declaration of Independence, 287, 294
Defoe, Daniel, 182
deism, 84, 97, 100, 309, 312, 315
De Wolf, James, 311
Dickinson, Jonathan, 171
Diderot, Denis, 335
Doolittle, Thomas, 115, 166
Drelincourt, Charles, 80–81, 322
Dunlap, Jane, 184–85
Dutton, Anne, 184
Dwight, Timothy, 309
Edwards, Jonathan, xiii, 7, 21, 50, 63, 88, 100, 143, 171, 182, 189, 209–12, 224, 226, 265–66, 268, 279, 305, 309, 322–23, 326–28, 331, 341; and children, 37, 42, 45–50, 144, 332; and revivals, 15, 55, 102, 117–18, 145, 199; and women, 117–18, 180, 189, 323
Edwards, Jonathan, Jr., 279
Edwards, Sarah Pierpont, 102
Emerson, Joseph, 49
empiricism. See experience
Enlightenment, xiii, 7–8, 10–11, 24, 159, 183–84, 335, 342–43; and antislavery movement, 286–87; and benevolence, 8, 46, 59–60, 133, 214, 219, 227, 279; and the body, 322; and capitalism, xiii, 342; and evangelical movement, 8–11, 17, 19–20, 30, 60, 85, 94, 100, 112, 133, 138, 171, 183–85, 187, 190, 265, 267, 273, 279, 287, 290, 301, 304–5, 324, 330, 339, 342–43; and evil, 46, 82, 83–84, 100, 225; and gender, 183; and happiness, 227, 326, 330; and heaven, 324, 327; and hell, 145, 324, 332; and modernity, 8, 11, 30, 100, 159, 342; and poverty, 214–15, 343; and progress, 8, 10, 226, 301–2, 304–5, 324–25, 327, 342–43; and racism, 250, 266–67, 287, 342–43; and self-interest, 10, 343; and suffering, 46, 59–60, 82, 226, 303, 326, 343; and violence, 231–32, 303, 343; and women, 8, 10, 173, 183, 187–90, 267, 342–43. See also experience; humanitarianism; human nature; individualism
Estaing, Admiral d’ (Jean-Baptiste-Charles-Henri-Hector), 298–99
evangelical movement, xiii, 5, 7, 9–11, 21–23, 30, 102, 128, 157, 283, 301–2, 309, 319, 339–40, 342–43; and assurance, 11–12, 95, 99–100, 102–3, 117, 129, 133, 176, 343; and the Bible, 8, 11, 38, 98, 116, 122, 157, 162, 237, 265–66, 287, 302, 343; and the body, 322–23; and born-again Christianity, 1, 5, 9–10, 12, 31, 36, 48, 71, 94–95, 98, 100, 102–3, 105, 265, 267–68, 274–75, 331, 343; and Calvinism, 9, 82, 224, 279; and capitalism, 7, 213, 268, 286, 324, 327, 340–41, 343; and consumer revolution, 7, 11, 17, 47, 99–100, 193, 207–8, 212–13, 343; and Enlightenment, 8–11, 17, 19–20, 30, 60, 85, 94, 100, 112, 133, 138, 171, 183–85, 187, 190, 265, 267, 273, 279, 287, 290, 301, 304–5, 324, 330, 339, 342–43; and family, 45–46, 138, 159, 164 –65, 343; and gender, 5, 187–88, 262, 340; and humanitarianism, 7, 10, 60, 83, 85–88, 145, 218–219, 225–28, 286–87, 343; and millennialism, 10, 16, 252, 266, 274, 290, 301–2, 304, 309, 313–14; and missions, 11, 190, 219, 224–25, 228, 270, 281–83, 294, 313, 343; and modern world, 1, 5, 7, 11, 30, 100–101, 208, 342–43; and mourning, 85, 138, 148, 157–60, 164–65; and Native Americans, 10, 184, 265, 268; and progress, 7, 10–11, 218, 226, 290, 301, 304, 314, 327–28, 342; and Puritanism, 7, 9, 11, 86, 102, 112, 116, 187, 189, 208; and republicanism, 290, 302–3, 340; and self-interest, 10, 193, 207, 210, 226–27, 340; and slavery, 28, 219, 237, 268, 287, 309; and violence, 231–32, 302–3. See also African Americans, free; benevolence; children; conversion; death; experience; happiness; heaven; hell; human nature; individualism; revivals; slaves; suffering; women
evil: Christian interpretations of, 9, 46, 81–82, 85–87, 167, 199, 201, 225, 264, 267, 273, 279, 301, 311–12, 314; Enlightenment interpretations of, 46, 82, 83–84, 100, 225; and slavery, 219, 237, 266–67, 273, 285–86, 310–12
experience: and conversion, 94, 96–97, 100–102, 202; and Enlightenment, xiii, 8–10, 94, 97–98, 100–101, 133, 173, 176, 184–85, 190, 250, 265, 267, 343; and evangelical movement, xiii, 9–10, 94, 97–98, 100–104, 122, 133, 173, 176, 183–85, 187, 189–90, 250, 257, 265, 267–68, 331, 339, 343; and individualism, 11, 185, 187, 190
—and authority, 10–11, 173, 183–85, 187, 189–90, 265, 267–68, 343; and African Americans, 202, 250, 265, 267–68, 343; and Native Americans, 265, 267–68; and SO, 100, 103–4, 113–14, 119, 121–22, 133, 138, 148, 176, 189–90, 257, 339; and women, 10–11, 173, 183–85, 187, 189–90, 265, 267, 343
family: evangelical views of, 45–46, 130, 138, 159, 164–65, 329–32, 343; historical changes in, 45–46, 165, 185
Fellows, Daniel, 283, 293, 295–98, 319
Fellows, Sally. See Osborn, Sally
Fellows, Susanna (SO’s step-great-granddaughter), 293, 295, 297–98, 314
Fiering, Norman, 145
First Church of Christ, xiv, 22, 107, 113, 123, 129, 182, 223, 263, 279, 296, 339; and American Revolution, 292, 295, 306; and S. Hopkins, 277, 279, 281, 305, 339; and slaves and free African Americans, 202–3, 237, 239–40, 252–53, 274–75, 309, 313, 339; and W. Vinal, 230, 275, 277, 283; women’s society, 123, 131, 202, 239, 297, 339
Fish, Joseph, 51, 117, 181, 208–9, 257, 263, 291, 307; correspondence with SO, 174–75, 197, 219–21, 230, 233, 236, 246, 248–49, 251–55, 257–63, 269–71, 274, 277, 290, 300, 304–6; friendship with SO, 123–24, 177, 213, 308
Fiske, Sarah, 178–79
Flavel, John, 19, 76, 80, 158, 165–66
Francke, August Hermann, 50
Franklin, Ann, 196
Franklin, Benjamin, 19, 196, 214, 324
Free African Union Society, 273, 312–13
French, “Brother” (SO’s brother-in-law), 175, 238
French and Indian War. See Seven Years’ War
Freud, Sigmund, 67
Friedan, Betty, 341
Frothingham,
Ebenezer, 99, 180
Gardner, Jenny, 313
Gardner, Newport (Occramar Marycoo), 273, 312–13, 339
Gaustad, Edwin S., 22
Gavin, Antonio, 292
Gay, Peter, 8
gender: and Enlightenment, 183; and evangelical movement, 5, 187–88, 262, 340; and female body, 323; and language of humility, 56–57; and revivals, 117–18, 262; and sexuality, 54–55
George III (king of England), 292
Gerrish, Brian, 148
Gerrish, Martha, 50–51, 179
Gibbon, Edward, 302
Gibbs, Henry, 157
Gill, Sarah Prince, 31, 87, 101, 103, 160, 182
Gilman, Nicholas, 130, 226
Goen, C. C., 26
Goodhue, Sarah, 178–79
Gosper (slave), 202, 239–42
Graham, Billy, 5
Grant, Mrs., 259, 261
Gray, Mrs. Ebenezer, 223
Great Awakening. See revivals
Greenman, Almey, 204–5, 220
grief. See mourning
Gronniosaw, James Albert Ukawsaw, 268, 286
Guyse, John (SO’s uncle), 24, 35, 38, 140, 207, 226, 244–45
Gyles, William, 280
Haggar, Benjamin (SO’s father), 35–36, 40–41, 60, 79–80, 95, 108, 125, 167; SO’s relationship with, 49–53, 61–64, 68, 70–77, 88–89, 113–14, 125
Haggar, Susanna Guyse (SO’s mother), 35–36, 40–41, 60, 79, 95, 108, 252, 293; SO’s relationship with, 49–53, 61–63, 65, 68, 70–77, 88–89, 105, 107, 110, 113–14, 125–28, 173
Haggar, William Guise, 263
Hammon, Jupiter, 268
Hammond, Elnathan, 198, 283
Hammond, Polly, 198
happiness, xiii, 9; and Enlightenment, 227, 326, 330; and evangelical movement, 60, 85–88, 133, 151, 153–54, 207, 209, 218, 227, 287, 310, 322, 325–26, 328–29, 331–32, 341; and humanitarianism, 60, 84, 218; and liberal Protestantism, 209–10, 227, 322, 325–26, 331
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