Invisible Armies: An Epic History of Guerrilla Warfare From Ancient Times to the Present
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166 New York Times, Oct. 29, 1860.
167 Ridley, Garibaldi, 515, notes, “He had ruled 4,000,000 subjects in April 1859; in November 1860 he ruled 22,000,000, of whom 9,000,000 had been given to him by Garibaldi in the former Kingdom of Naples.”
168 Forbes, Campaigns, 2.
169 Parris, Garibaldi, 277.
170 Times (London), April 12, 1864; New York Times, April 28, 1864; Parris, Garibaldi, 287; Hibbert, Garibaldi, 341.
171 Ridley, Garibaldi, 521–23; Parris, Lion, 269–70.
172 Trevelyan, Thousand, 6.
173 Lieber, Instructions, 26, 29; Hartigan, Lieber’s Code; Grimsley, Hard Hand, 144–51; Fellman, Inside War, 82–84.
174 Franco-Prussian War: Hatley, “Inevitable” (16,000 men: 279; “element”: 247; Châtillon-sur-Seine: 250–51); Howard, Franco-Prussian War, 249 (“pause”), 251 (“not soldiers”); Wawro, Franco-Prussian, 288–89, 309; Showalter, German Unification, 319; Ridley, Garibaldi; Garibaldi, Autobiography (“oppressed”: 3.403); Horne, Atrocities (“harsh”: 140–41); Hibbert, Garibaldi, 360 (“execrable”); Melena, Public, 285 (“left”).
175 Mack Smith, Garibaldi, 179.
176 Hibbert, Garibaldi, xiii.
177 Bin Laden to Zawahiri, 2002. Harmony Database, CTC, AFGP-2002-600321.
178 Shelley, Hellas, 51.
179 Hassal, Secret History, 152.
180 “Misery”: Riall, Garibaldi, 369. “Base”: 371.
181 Bolívar, Selected Writings, 1.117.
182 Ibid., 2.761. San Martín also warned of “anarchy”: Harrison, Captain, 175.
BOOK III: THE SPREADING OIL SPOT:
THE WARS OF EMPIRE
1 In 1450, 1800: Lynn, Acta. In 1914: Headrick, Tools, 3.
2 Thornton, Warfare, 150.
3 Morris, Washing.
4 Boot, War Made New, 77–103.
5 Kopperman, Braddock; WP/CS, 1.336; Anderson, Crucible (casualty figures: 760, n. 17); Russell, “Redcoats”; Grenier, Way.
6 Jamestown: Smith, Historie (“beasts”: 1.281; “barbarously”: 1.280; “destroy them”: 1.286); Kingsbury, Records (“skies fall”: 3.550; “defacing”: 3.551; “viperous”: 3.553; wine: 4.98–99, 102, 220–22; “perpetual”: 3.672); Price, Love, 200–21; Kupperman, Jamestown, 304–16; Rountree, Powhatan, 69–78 (Indian dress); Rountree, Pocahontas’s People, 73–77; Neill, Memoir, 57 (“happy league”); Vaughan, “Expulsion”; Shea, Virginia Militia, 25–38; Horne, Land, 255–62; Steele, Warpaths, 46; Utley, Indian Wars, 8; Grenier, First Way, 23–24; Taylor, American Colonies, 129–37; Fausz, “Barbarous Massacre.”
7 A paraphrase of Wilson, Weep, 47.
8 WP/CS, 2.233.
9 Champlain, Works (“frightened,” “lost courage”: 2.100); Fischer, Champlain’s Dream, 265–70; Trigger, Aataentsic, 249–54; Steele, Warpaths, 64–65.
10 For the use of “Indians,” rather than “Native Americans,” see Mann, 1491, appendix A.
11 Morgan, Heroes, 16 (“horror”), 17 (“cherished”).
12 Mann, 1491, 87.
13 Malone, Skulking Way (firearms: 42–45; Indian marksmanship: 52); Starkey, Native American Warfare, 20–25; Trigger, Cambridge History, vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 5–21.
14 Rowlandson, Narrative, 68.
15 Parkman, France, 402.
16 Mann, 1491, 94, notes that estimates of Indian population in the New World prior to 1492 range from 8 million to 112 million. He adds (132) that “the High Counters seem to be winning the argument, at least for now.” For the case against the High Counters, see Henige, Numbers.
17 Snow, “European Contact.”
18 Bradford, Plymouth, 327.
19 Wilson, Weep, 75.
20 King Philip’s War: Cook, “Interracial Warfare” (casualty figures); Drake, King Philip’s War; Lepore, Name of War; Schultz, King Philip’s War (253 years: 2); Leach, Flintlocks.
21 Wilson, Weep, 21.
22 Saggs, Assyria, 263–68.
23 70,000 removed: Vandervort, Indian Wars, 122. “Brute”: Rozema, Voices, Kindle location 2363.
24 Missall, Seminole Wars; Mahon, Second Seminole War; Sprague, Florida War.
25 Sand Creek: U.S. Congress, Report (“brains”: 42); Greene, Sand Creek; Hoig, Sand Creek; Hatch, Black Kettle, 146–67.
26 Washita: Hardorff, Washita (buffalo trail: 107–8; “heap Injuns”: 137; “close”: 111; “moody”: 153; “watch tick”: 207; “village rang”: 114; “eyelids”: 208; “determined defense”: 82; “gorgeous”: 210; “superior”: 88; ponies killed: 26–27, 144; mistress: 231; “nice”: 171; casualties: 78–79); Custer, Wild Life, 206–33; Godfrey, “Reminiscences” (“Wilderness”); Brewster, “Battle” (“oppressive,” “boys”); Barnitz, Life (“dispatch[ed]”: 220; “surprising”: 227); Spotts, Campaigning; Keim, Troopers, 145 (“mutilation”). For secondary sources, see Greene, Washita; Hoig, Washita; Epple, Custer’s Battle; Hatch, Black Kettle; Utley, Regulars (“total war”: 144); Brill, Custer, Black Kettle; Wert, Custer (mistress: 287–88); Utley, Cavalier, 64–78; Barnard, Hoosier.
27 The U.S. army and civilian figures are for 1848–90; the figure for Indians is for 1865–90. Vandervort, Indian Wars, xiv.
28 “Better”: Hassrick, Sioux, 32. “Courting”: 33. “Suffer”: 34. Coup: 90–91.
29 270,000 Indians: Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Report 1866, 372. 100,000 hostiles: Utley, Frontier Regulars. 5.8 million Americans: Utley, Indian Wars, 161. 30,000 Sioux: U.S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Report 1866, 371.
30 Utley, Indian Wars, 193.
31 U.S. Secretary of the Interior, Annual Report 1873, 3–4.
32 Utley, Regulars, 15.
33 Ibid., 22.
34 Crook: Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, 5.213, 246; Bourke, Border, 110 (“lance”); AHEC/CKP, box 1 (“vices”: Diary, Jan. 31, 1873–Feb. 15, 1873; cribbage: Diary, Aug. 13, 1885–Dec. 11, 1887; “pastime”: A. H. Nickerson, “Major General George Crook and the Indians: A Sketch”).
35 Aleshire, Fox, ix.
36 Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, 5.217.
37 Crook, “Apache Problem,” 263–65 (“wildest,” “physique,” “pard,” “trail”).
38 Bourke, Border, 443.
39 Diary, Jan. 31, 1873–Feb. 15, 1873, AHEC/CKP, box 1.
40 Geronimo: AHEC/CKP; Aleshire, Fox; Crook, Autobiography; Miles, Recollections, 445–532, and Serving, 219–32; Bourke, Border; Bourke, Apache Campaign; Roberts, They Moved (266 mules, 327 men: 228; $2: 309); Aleshire, Fox; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 344–96; Vandervort, Indian Wars, 192–10; Geronimo, Story; Gatewood, Memoir; Thrapp, Apacheria; Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, vol. 1.
41 Alcohol, swearing: Utley, Cavalier, 108–9; Wert, Custer, 46; Barnett, Touched, 80.
42 “Genial”: A. H. Nickerson, “Major General George Crook and the Indians: A Sketch,” AHEC/CKP, box 1. “Pomp”: Bourke, Border, 108.
43 Cozzens, Eyewitness, 4.251.
44 Little Bighorn: Utley, Frontier Regulars; Yenne, Sitting Bull and Indian Wars; Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, vol. 4; Michino, Lakota Noon (estimates of Indian strength: 3–12); Gray, Custer’s Last Campaign and Centennial Campaign; Wert, Custer; Utley, Cavalier; Vandervort, Indian Wars; Hutton, Custer Reader and Soldiers West; Scott, Perspectives; Godfrey, Account; AHEC/CKP, box 1 (“lithe”: A. H. Nickerson, “Major General George Crook and the Indians: A Sketch”); Utley, Cavalier, 65 (“Indians enough”).
45 Utley, Indian Wars; St. Clair, Narrative; Trigger, Cambridge History, vol. 1, pt. 1.
46 Reasonable choice: Friedman, “Strategy Trap.”
47 Miles: AHEC/NAM (“nature”: Winfield S. Hancock to 2nd Corps Headquarters, June 24, 1863, box 1; “sleepless,” “uncommon”: Francis C. Barlow to Sen. Henry Wilson, Nov. 28, 1863, box 1; “pounding”: Phil Sheridan to Adjutant General, Oct. 25, 1877, box 2); Finerty, War-Path (“no rest”: 298); Remington, John Ermine (“light fires”: 136); Miles, Recollections (“Esquimaux”: 219; 60 below: 218); Cozzens, Eyewitnesses, vol. 4; Utley, Frontier Regulars; Greene: Lakota, Yellowstone, Battles, Morning; Rob
inson, Good Year; Andrist, Long Death; DeMontravel, A Hero; Wooster, Nelson A. Miles.
48 Vandervort, Indian Wars, 46.
49 Gimri: Baddeley, Conquest (snow: 276; “ferocious”: 266–69; Germentchug: 27–274); Blanch, Sabres (“bare”: 70; “wild beast”: 73–74); al-Qarakhi, Shining (pulled out sword: 22); Gammer, Resistance, 58–59; Allen, Caucasian Battlefields, 47–48 (“Wahabi”).
50 Baddeley, Conquest, xxxvi.
51 Blanch, Sabres, 1.
52 Yermolou: Baddeley, Conquest (abandoned gun: 107; “terror”: 97); King, Ghost of Freedom, 45–50; Gammer, Resistance, 29–38, and Lone Wolf, 31–44; Blanch, Sabres, 22–26; Longworth, Russia, 199–200; Dunlop, Chechnya, 13–18.
53 Tolstoy, Hadji Murat, 63.
54 Gammer, Resistance, 22.
55 Origins of gazavat: Gammer, Resistance, 39–65; Gammer, Lone Wolf, 45–50; King, Ghost, 64–73; Zelkina, Quest, 121–68; Blanch, Sabres, 54–124; Baddeley, Conquest, 230–88; Dunlop, Chechnya, 23–24; Seton-Watson, Russian Empire, 291–92.
56 Shamil’s appearance: Blanch, Sabres, 48 (height), 52 (henna), 129 (“flames darted”); Tolstoy, Hadji Murad, 67 (“hewn”).
57 Second escape: Blanch, Sabres, 162–74; Baddeley, Conquest, 328–43; King, Ghost, 79–80; Gammer, Resistance, 96–109.
58 Baddeley, Conquest, 438.
59 Blanch, Sabres, 129–33; Baddeley, Conquest (“betraying”: 378); Gammer, Resistance, 239–40.
60 Zelkina, Quest, 223.
61 Gammer, Muslim Resistance, 24; King, Ghost, 90.
62 J. A. Longworth to the Earl of Clarendon, July 20, 1855, NA/CIR.
63 Vernadsky, Source Book, 3.609.
64 Ibid.
65 War’s end: Blanch, Sabres, 293–301, 390–410; Baddeley, Russian Conquest, 437–82; al-Qarakhi, Shining, 61–65; King, Ghost, 84–92; Gammer, Resistance, 277–79, and Lone Wolf, 63–64; Zelkina, Quest, 226–34; Barrett, “Remaking.”
66 Abd el-Kader: Kiser, Commander (Shamil’s thanks: 303); Churchill, Abdel Kader; Danziger, Abd al-Qadir.
67 Baddeley, Conquest, 480.
68 King, Ghost, 76.
69 See Lermontov’s A Hero of Our Time and Tolstoy’s Hadji Murad, The Cossacks, and “The Wood-Felling: A Junker’s Tale,” in Sevastopol and Other Military Tales, 154–205.
70 Start of march: Kaye, History (“ankle-deep”: 2.329); “Brydon’s Ride,” in Sale, Journal (“charred”: 161); Sale, Journal (frosty: 95; “disorganized”: 102); Eyre, Military Operations (size of force: 196; “dreary”: 195; “conflagration”: 199; “fell”: 199).
71 Kipling, “Hymn before Action” (1896).
72 Army of the Indus: Kaye, History, 1.379,388, 389 (“comforts”), 1.464 (“bayonets”); Waller, Beyond, 137–38; Havelock, Narrative, 1.23 (“mortifying”); Gleig, Sale’s Brigade, 69–73 (cricket).
73 Gleig, Sale’s Brigade, 100.
74 Kaye, History, 2.336–37.
75 Sale to T. H. Maddock, April 16, 1842, NA/RBJ (“fanatical,” “melancholy”).
76 Lunt, Bokhara Burnes; Burnes, Cabool.
77 Sale, Journal, 37.
78 Ibid., 20.
79 Kaye, History, 2.191.
80 Ibid., 196.
81 Ibid., 273.
82 Colley, Captives.
83 End of march: NA/AC; Kaye, History (“ankle-deep”: 2.329; “incessant”: 2.162; “dark”: 2.384: “cruel”: 2.385); “Brydon’s Ride,” in Sale, Journal (“charred”: 161); Sale, Journal (“frost-bitten”: 108); Eyre, Military Operations, 195–235 (size of force: 196; “faintest semblance”: 201; “monstrous”: 205; 3,000 died: 209; “slaughter”: 208; 700 Europeans: 196); Marshman, Memoirs, 50 (“stupendous”); Gleig, Sale’s Brigade; Stewart, Crimson Snow, 145–75; Macrory, Retreat, 197–238; Waller, Beyond, 236–55; Tanner, Afghanistan, 193 (hostages); Norris, First Afghan War, 378–81; Dupree, Afghanistan, 388–93.
84 Maj. Rawlinson to Maj.-Gen. Nott, Feb. 1, 1842, NA/AC, 75.
85 Low, Pollock, 255–58.
86 Colley, Captives, 354 (“scribbling”).
87 Ibid., 363.
88 Pollock to Maj. Gen. Lumley, Oct. 13, 1842, NA/AC, 217.
89 Low, Pollock, 416.
90 Kaye, History, 3.376.
91 Proclamation by governor general, Oct. 1, 1842, NA/AC, 214.
92 Second Afghan War: Robson, Road (casualties: 299); Intelligence Branch, Official Account; Hanna, Second Afghan War; Roberts, Forty-One Years, vol. 2; Hensman, Afghan War.
93 Third Afghan War: Robson, Crisis.
94 Elphinstone, Caubul, 253.
95 Schofield, Afghan Frontier, 163.
96 Warburton, Eighteen Years, 343.
97 Malakand Field Force: Churchill, Malakand Field Force, 127 (“chastise”), 204 (“roadless,” “march anywhere”), 168 (“destroyed”), 66 (“no quarter”); Churchill, Young Winston’s Wars; CAM/CHUR, 28/23; Blood, Four Score; Pioneer, Risings; Schofield, Afghan Frontier, 107–11; Swinson, North-West Frontier, 232–55.
98 Great Britain, Hansard’s, 54.749, March 7, 1898.
99 “Pinpricking,” “we had”: Masters, Bugles, 194–95. “Castrate”: 199. “Few”: 197.
100 Kipling, Complete Verse, 414–16.
101 Masters, Bugles, 201.
102 Maurice, History, 1.91–92.
103 Henissart, Wolves, 29.
104 Porch, Morocco, 85–86. For a response, see Singer, Force, 200–201.
105 Lyautey, “Du rôle social.”
106 Windrow, Our Friends, 170.
107 Lyautey, Lettres, 1.122.
108 Maurois, Lyautey, 47.
109 Ibid., 54.
110 Gann, Proconsuls, 90.
111 Indochina: Ibid., 80–108; Hoisington, Lyautey, 7; Gershovich, Military Rule, 30; Thompson, Indo-China, 74; Earle, Makers, 238–40; Windrow, Our Friends, 191–209.
112 Lyautey, “Du rôle colonial.”
113 Porch, Morocco, xxii; Bidwell, Morocco, xi.
114 Porch, Morocco, 187. For a contrary view see Hoisington, Lyautey, 53, 206.
115 Morocco population: Park, Historical Dictionary, 98.
116 Windrow, Our Friends, 167.
117 Burnoose: Maurois, Lyautey, 115–17. “Notables”: 158. “Passion”: 50.
118 Harris, Morocco, 295.
119 Maurois, Lyautey, 196.
120 El-Hiba: Porch, Morocco, 266–67; Hoisington, Lyautey, 46; Gershovich, Military Rule, 96; Maxwell, Lords, 129–30; Bidwell, Morocco, 104; Windrow, Our Friends, 403. “Execution”: Boot, War Made New, 148.
121 Maurois, Lyautey, 168–69.
122 Gershovich, Military Rule, 80.
123 Rif: Woolman, Rebels (half million: 196); Gershovich, Military Rule, 122–66; Pennell, Country.
124 Lyautey, Lettres, 2.129. Degrees, “bad”: Earle, Makers, 258.
125 Black Week: Amery, Times History, 3.2 (“unsuccess,” “stinging”), 3.3 (“stirred”) ; Fitzgibbon, Arts, 2 (“deep gloom”); NA/SAD, vol. 1; Doyle, Great Boer War, 108–9 (“disastrous”); Pennell, Whistler, 253–54 (“whipped”); Times, Guardian, Observer; Victoria, Letters, 3.434 (“grieved”); Daily Telegraph, Dec. 11, 1899 (“grave news”), Dec. 16 (“reverse”); Daily Mail, Dec. 15 (“heavy losses”); Farwell, Anglo-Boer War, 139–47; Pakenham, Boer, 252–64.
126 Population: http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp99/rp99-111.pdf. Industrialized: Kennedy, Rise and Fall, 200.
127 Schikkerling, Commando, 207–8.
128 Reitz, Commando, 142.
129 Maurice, History, 1.1; Amery, Times History, 2.88.
130 Pakenham, Boer, 253.
131 Times (London), Dec. 18, 1899.
132 Kipling, “Bobs” (1892).
133 Maurice, History, 4.5; Pakenham, Boer War, 486.
134 De Wet: Pienaar, With Steyn, 97 (“sorry sight”), 103 (“castrate”); Wilson, After Pretoria, 1.49; De Wet, Three Years, 75 (“rapidity”); Rosenthal, De Wet, foreword (“byword”); Rosslyn, Captured, 256 (“undistinguished”).
135 Sanna’s Post: De Wet, Three Years (“h
ands up”: 66); Rosenthal, De Wet, 74–78; Amery, Times History, 4.29–50; Pakenham, Boer War (30,000 men: 414); Farwell, Anglo-Boer War, 257–63.
136 Smuts raid: Reitz, Commando, 112 (George Washington), 215 (“every valley”), 218 (“finished”), 219 (“glissading”), 212 (“evil dreams”), 209 (“ragged”), 223 (“froze”), 210 (“first slice”), 230 (“refitted”); Smuts, Smuts, 63 (Anabasis), 61 (250 men); Smuts, Papers, 1.433 (“poison”), 1.434 (“terrible”), 1.437 (“right”).
137 James, Heels, 12.
138 Mosley, Glorious Fault, 119.
139 Farwell, Anglo-Boer War, 353.
140 Phillipps, With Rimington, 201.
141 Great Britain, Hansard’s, 90.180, March 1, 1901.
142 Reconcentrado: Tone, War, 193 (deaths), 164 (“bonbons”); Thomas, Cuba, 329–31.
143 Pakenham, Scramble; Hull, Destruction.
144 Hamilton, Commander, 67.
145 Concentration camps: Hobhouse, Brunt, 116 (“indescribable”), 118 (“luxury”), 153 (“barbarism”); Hall, Bloody Woman, 3 (“bloody”); Hamilton, Commander, 67 (“feel”); Martin, Concentration Camps, 31 (death figures); Judd, Boer War; Pakenham, Boer War, 549 (150,000).
146 Pakenham, Boer War, 492.
147 2,000 volunteers: Judd, Boer War, 247.
148 Blockhouses: NA/BLOCK; Fuller, Last, 107–48 (“nothing to do”: 111); Wilson, After Pretoria, 2.546–50; Maurice, History, 4.568–76.
149 NA/AT.
150 “Blockhead”: De Wet, Three Years, 260. “Succeeded”: 261. “Night”: 263. “Undoing: 18. “Probability”: 224.
151 Andrew, Secret Service, 29; Pakenham, Boer War, 573.
152 Woolls-Sampson: Sampson, Anti-Commando (“fanatical”: 99; “mad”: 150; “enflamed”: 134); Farwell, Anglo-Boer War, 356–57; Pakenham, Boer War, 573.
153 “Attrition”: Reitz, Commando, 314. “Ruin,” “disastrous”: 322.
154 Maurice, History, 4.562.
155 Reconstruction: Amery, Times History, vol. 6; Milner Papers, 2.367–403; Thompson, Forgotten Patriot, 219–38.
156 Fuller, Last.
157 “Massed”: Fuller, Last, 7. Fatalities: Amery, Times History, 7.25.
158 “Friendly”: Lt. Gen. Bindon Blood, Aug. 27, 1901, NA/SAD, 1.159. “Rules”: 1.160.
159 Philippines: Boot, Savage Wars, ch. 5.
160 Amery, Times History, 3.3.
161 Callwell, Small Wars, ch. 11.