Fortress Rabaul: The Battle for the Southwest Pacific, January 1942-April 1943

by Bruce Gamble

  With the capture of Bougainville, the Allies established airstrips that enabled single-engine fighters to reach Rabaul for the first time. For two months beginning in mid-December 1943, huge air battles raged almost daily over the stronghold, often involving hundreds of aircraft. Attrition eventually forced the Japanese to pull their air flotillas out of Rabaul, and by early March 1944, waves of Allied bombers of every size and description had razed the township.

  Although besieged by the Allied encirclement, the Japanese refused to give up. Their flow of supplies was drastically reduced, and the repeated bombing raids forced the garrison to live underground, but conditions were not terribly uncomfortable. Living and working in skillfully engineered tunnels and caves, the Japanese moved their headquarters, supply dumps, barracks, and even fully equipped hospitals under the volcanic mountains.

  Prisoners of war, on the other hand, endured a wretched existence at Rabaul. Indian and Chinese POWs, shipped from captured territories to provide slave labor, died by the thousands on New Britain. Captured aviators suffered much as well. Between April 1943 and the end of the war, well over a hundred downed airmen were taken prisoner in the Southwest Pacific and brought to a separate camp run by the Kempeitai. But when the Japanese surrendered Rabaul in September 1945, only seven gaunt captives were still alive.

  Their story is for another book.

  Notes

  Prologue

  Lark Force’s limitations and responsibilities: Gamble, Darkest Hour, pp. 46–47.

  Under the circumstances… : Cable 152, Dec. 12, 1941.

  Communiqué issued by Victoria Barracks: Johnston, New Guinea Diary, p. 2.

  Statements by Minister Forde: Canberra Times, Jan. 24, 1942, p. 1.

  Military experts believe… : Sydney Sun, p. 1.

  Chapter 1: Volcanoes, God, and Coconuts

  Why are the Japs striking… : Johnston, p. 1.

  Geological background of the Rabaul caldera and details of the major eruptions: McKee, pp. 4–21; also Dr. C. Daniel Miller, interview with author, Mar. 26, 2002.

  Development and settlement of Rabaul: Gamble, pp. 34–35.

  Australian Expeditionary Force skirmish at Rabaul: Ibid., p. 35.

  little tropical outpost: Johnston, p. 1.

  Details of 1937 eruption: Johnson, Volcano Town, pp. 25–45.

  Chapter 2: 24 Squadron

  Weak status of Australia’s military, including a paper plan: Hasluck, The Government and the People, p. 298.

  On each of these groups …: Thompson, National Geographic, Dec. 1921, pp. 557–59.

  Installment of antiaircraft guns: Gamble, pp. 46–47.

  Early war status of RAAF, including not very formidable: Gillison, Royal Australian Air Force 1939–1942, p. 191.

  Lockheed Hudson duties: McAulay, We Who Are About to Die, p. 39.

  Arrival of Hudsons at Rabaul and first operational flight: Murphy, correspondence with author, June 7, 2004.

  Erwin’s mission to Kapingamarangi Atoll: McAulay, p. 50.

  I was the first to drop a bomb . ..: Murphy, correspondence with author, June 7, 2004.

  It was addressed to me… : Quoted in McAulay, p. 52.

  Personality of Wing Commander Garing: McAulay, correspondence with author, June 17, 2008.

  Lerew’s impish irreverence and sarcastic messages: Gillison, p. 270.

  owing to lack of speed: Brookes, RAAF Operations Report from Rabaul, p. 4.

  Development of Lakunai Airdrome: McAulay, pp. 42–43, 63.

  Interception of flying boats and Wirraways’ poor performance: Brookes, p. 4.

  Details of New Year’s Day attack: Murphy, correspondence with author.

  Development of Japanese pre-war strategies: Bullard, Japanese Army Operations in the South Pacific Area, p. 4.

  Japanese plans for the Southern Offensive and Rabaul, 1941: Ibid., p. 3–5.

  Great Army Order No. 992: Ibid., p. 7.

  South Seas Force invasion of Guam: Rottman, World War II Pacific Island Guide, pp. 389–90.

  Japanese plans for R Operation: Bullard, pp. 7, 23–24.

  Chapter 3: Gladiators

  Profile of Cornelius Page: The Stubborn Coastwatcher, pp. 1–2.

  Explanation of Imperial Japanese Navy land attack category: Tagaya, Mitsubishi Type 1 Rikko “Betty” Units of World War 2, p. 6.

  Mitsubishi G3M specifications: Francillon, Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War, p. 357.

  Approach of the first Japanese bombers: Bloomfield, Rabaul Diary, pp. 13–14.

  Can we really fire this time?: Selby, Hell and High Fever, p. 15.

  Antiaircraft battery’s first action: Ibid., pp. 15–16; also Fisher, unpublished memoir, p. 3.

  Results of the first Japanese raid, including native casualties: Stone, Hostages to Freedom, p. 44.

  Japanese publicity: Mainichi Daily News, Jan. 16, 1942, p. 1.

  Interception by Wirraways, including the enemy took advantage… : Brookes, p. 6; also McAulay, p. 87.

  Explosion of Hudson bomber: McAulay, p. 89.

  Reconnaissance of Truk Lagoon: Gillison, p. 317.

  Details of Jan. 16 attacks: McAulay, pp. 99–100.

  Government’s refusal to evacuate civilian men: Aplin, Rabaul 1942, p. 26.

  Composition of Rabaul invasion fleet: Bullard, p. 22.

  Strength of Nagumo’s carrier forces: Dull, The Imperial Japanese Navy, p. 102; Wenger, correspondence with author, Nov. 7, 2004.

  Profile of Commander Fuchida: Prange, God’s Samurai, pp. 4–48.

  Specifications of A6M Zero: Francillon, p. 376–77.

  Initial attack by Zeros, including desperate gallantry: Selby, p. 27; also Gillison, p. 353.

  There could be only one conclusion… : Selby, pp. 27–28.

  Details of Zero vs. Wirraway combat: Gillison, pp. 353–56; also McAulay, pp. 109–14.

  There was something sickening… : Selby, p, 28.

  Casualties suffered by 24 Squadron: McAulay, p. 114.

  Defense ministry’s decision regarding medals for Wirraway crews: Stone, p. 50.

  Bomb damage at Vunakanau: McAulay, p. 118.

  Details of Kaga B5N attack, including Our aircraft shook a lot… : Werneth, pp. 111, 115.

  Dive-bombing attacks on Herstein and Westralia: Gamble, p. 76.

  Damaged aircraft return to Japanese fleet, including I was scared… : Werneth, p. 147.

  Details of Japanese losses: Tagaya, correspondence with author, July 28, 2007.

  Commander Fuchida’s frustration: Prange, p. 54.

  Details of messages from Lerew: Gillison, p. 356.

  Norwegian and RAAF casualties, including The battered bodies… : Bowman, Not Now Tomorrow, p. 26.

  Background of the Morituri vos salutamus message: May, unpublished essay, Jan. 18, 1996; also interview with author, Jan. 25, 2008. In early 1992, John Lerew supported May’s version of events: “I’d done Latin up through Leaving (certificate) at Scots College,” he told a reporter, “but I was a bit rusty so I got an Army padre to help me.” (Canberra Times, Jan. 18, 1992, p. 3).

  Details of last Hudson flight, including the chief gladiator… : Gillison, p. 358.

  Chapter 4: Desperate Hours

  Configuration of Catalina: Riddell, Recounting the Operations of RAAF Catalinas, p. 1.

  Sighting of Japanese fleet on Jan. 21, 1942: Minty, Black Cats, p. 2.

  Details of Zuikaku fighter unit: Wenger, correspondence with author, Nov. 4, 2004.

  Downing of Thompson’s Catalina and capture of crew: Minty, pp. 3–4.

  Nagumo’s objectives: Bullard, p. 24.

  Reported size of enemy fleet: McAulay, p. 121; Gillison, pp. 356–57.

  Colonel Scanlan’s puzzling orders: Gamble, pp. 81–82.

  Orders for 24 Squadron, including all available aircraft… : Brookes, p. 9.

  not to reason why… : Tennyson, “The Charge of the Light Brigade.”

  Sharp’s attempt to find the Japanese fleet: Gillison, p. 357.

&nb
sp; Message from Air Commodore Bladin: Ibid., p. 358.

  Last RAAF flight from Rabaul: McAulay, pp. 124–25.

  Explosion of bomb dump, including a rather botched demolition: Stone, p. 53.

  Scanlan’s consent to withdraw 24 Squadron: Gamble, p. 86.

  Evacuation of patients to Vunapope, including You’ll stay… : May, interview with author. Jan. 5, 2008.

  Send flying boats… : Gillison, p. 360.

  Callous behavior of civilians: Brookes, p. 11.

  Airlift of 24 Squadron personnel: Brookes, pp. 10–11; also McAulay, pp. 138–44.

  Chapter 5: The Fall of Rabaul

  Amphibious landings on January 23, 1942: Gamble, pp. 94–99.

  The loss of Zero pilot Hiraishi: Shiga, quoted in Werneth, p. 249.

  Collapse of Lark Force, including every man for himself: Bloomfield, pp. 23, 25; also Gamble, pp. 110–17.

  Execution of captured officers: Gamble, pp. 132, 134, 156, 212–13.

  General Horii’s edict: Bloomfield, p. 25.

  Outbreak of malaria: Japanese Monograph No. 143 (Army), p. 10.

  Captain Robertson’s warning of certain death: Selby, p. 57.

  Assault on Tol Plantation by 3rd Battalion/8th Company: Monograph No. 143, p. 8.

  Atrocities at Tol: Gamble, pp. 148–58.

  Torture and execution of Captain Gray: Stone, pp. 361–62. Several references to the vivisection of Gray are found in the memoirs of Rabaul POWs and internees. As with the atrocities at Tol, the Japanese were unable to keep Gray’s murder a secret. According to Peter Stone, two villagers came across Gray’s shallow grave a few weeks after the incident and “examined the body, confirming that the heart was removed.” Independently, a Kempeitai interpreter bragged about the vivisection in the presence of Father Josef Leo Brenninkmeyer, a priest at Vunapope.

  Gray’s coupe de grace: May, interview with author.

  Chapter 6: Counterattack

  Specifications of the PBY Catalina: Riddell, p. 1; also Swanborough & Bowers, United States Navy Aircraft, p. 100.

  Details of first RAAF raid on Rabaul: Gillison, p. 365.

  It was an amazing thing… : Kingsland, interview with author. Nov. 29, 2005.

  snatch a nap like children in kindergarten: Minty, p. 10.

  Observations of Private Hisaeda: Captured diary, Jan. 24, 1942. AWM 3DRL/4005.

  RAAF damage claims: Gillison, p. 365.

  Japanese friendly fire incident: AWM 54 (423/4/158).

  Follow-up raid and observations of Lieutenant Duigan: Gillison, p. 365.

  RAAF Shocks Japs: Sydney Sun, Jan. 28, 1942, p. 1.

  Enemy aircraft frequently invaded… : AWM 54 (423/4/162).

  Repairs to Lakunai: Japanese Monograph No. 120, Outline of Southeast Area Naval Operations, p. 5.

  encourage the Army engineer troops… : Hata & Izawa, Japanese Naval Aces and Fighter Units in World War II, p. 103.

  Arrival of first Imperial Navy fighter units: Ibid., pp. 103–4.

  Capabilities and limitations of Mitsubishi A5M: Francillon, p. 347.

  Air combat between Hemsworth and Nishizawa: Gillison, pp. 448–49; also Guttmann, “The Devil,” Aviation History, July 1998, p. 44.

  Hemsworth’s return to Port Moresby: Gillison, p. 448.

  Ordeal of Captain Campbell and crew: Ibid., pp. 449–50.

  Capture and development of Gasmata air base: Bullard, p. 38.

  Lerew’s attack on Gasmata: McAulay, p. 194–95.

  Interception by Japanese fighters: Tagaya, correspondence with author, Feb. 8, 2004.

  Damage to Japanese transports: McAulay, p. 194–96.

  Chapter 7: Stronghold

  Japanese occupation of Rabaul and construction statistics: United States Strategic Bombing Survey, The Allied Campaign Against Rabaul, pp. 11–18.

  Details of antiaircraft defenses and ground defenses: Ibid., pp. 11–14.

  Details of infrastructure: Ibid., pp. 15–18.

  Specifications of antiaircraft weapons: Intelligence Bulletin Vol. I, No. 8, pp. 72–76; also Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 47–48.

  Radar and early warning at Rabaul: United States Strategic Bombing Survey, pp. 15–16.

  Other details regarding the development of Rabaul were found in AWM 54 (208/2/4), containing ATIS translations of miscellaneous captured documents, and in AWM 55 (12/140), ATIS Information Request Report No. 103, Japanese statements and diary excerpts relating to prisoners of war, May 4, 1944.

  Chapter 8: Task Force 11

  Assessment of Yamamoto’s chief of staff: Ugaki, Fading Victory, p. 81.

  Background of Task Force 11 and the ANZAC command: Lundstrom, The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway, pp. 84–87.

  Reconnaissance findings at Rabaul on Feb. 16: Gillison, p. 451.

  Mitsubishi Type 1 specifications: Francillon, p. 386.

  Critique of weight-saving measures: Tagaya, Mitsubishi Type 1, p. 10.

  Progress of Task Force 11 from Fiji: Lundstrom, pp. 85–87.

  Plentiful shipping targets… : Sherman, p. 80.

  Plans for B-17 support: Salaker, Fortress Against the Sun, p. 145.

  Detection of Task Force 11 by flying boats: Lundstrom, pp. 88, 91.

  Launching and vectoring of Wildcats: Ibid., pp. 88–91.

  Chapter 9: Medal of Honor: Edward H. “Butch” O’Hare

  Profile of Lieutenant Commander Thach: Lundstrom, p. 38.

  Downing of first Japanese flying boat, including Thach’s observations: Thach, “The Red Rain of Battle,” Collier’s, p. 15.

  Shoot-down of second flying boat: Lundstrom, pp. 93–94.

  Admiral Goto’s decision to send Type 1 bombers: Ibid., pp. 94–95.

  Goto’s message to the 4th Air Group: Quoted in Osaka Mainichi, Mar. 10, 1942, p 2.

  Configuration of Type 1 cockpit seating: Tagaya, correspondence with author, Jan. 4, 2004.

  Off we went… : Osaka Mainichi, Mar. 10, 1942, p. 2.

  Ito’s decision to separate the 1st and 2nd Chutais: Lundstrom, pp. 97–98.

  Admiral Brown’s decision to call off the raid: Ibid., p. 94.

  Background and capabilities of USS Lexington: Johnson, Queen of the Flattops, pp. 2, 19–23.

  a perfect day for bombing: Sherman, Combat Command, p. 81.

  Details of 2nd Chutai’s attack on Lexington: Lundstrom, pp. 97–10; also Tagaya, Mitsubishi Type 1 Units, pp. 36–37.

  Destruction of the 2nd Chutai: Ewing & Lundstrom, Fateful Rendezvous, pp. 124–28. (The O’Hare biography contains revisions over Lundstrom’s earlier landmark work, The First Team, which remains unparalleled as a moment-by-moment account.)

  O’Hare’s interception of the 1st Chutai: Ewing & Lundstrom, pp. 128–37.

  The rest of us… : Thach, in Collier’s, p. 56.

  [the bombers] were coming on fast… : O’Hare, quoted in Life, p. 18.

  O’Hare’s first gunnery pass: Lundstrom, The First Team, Pearl Harbor to Midway, pp. 102–3; also Tagaya, p. 36.

  As we closed in… : Thach, quoted in Johnston, p. 74.

  By this time… : O’Hare, quoted in Life, p. 18.

  Pursuit of 1st Chutai remnants: Lundstrom, pp. 104–5; Tagaya, pp. 36–37; also Osaka Mainichi, Mar. 10, 1942, p. 2.

  Ordeal of 1st Chutai stragglers: Tagaya, p. 37; also Osaka Mainichi, Mar. 10, 1942, p. 2.

  Observations of the raid by war correspondent Miyake: Ibid.

  Obituaries in the Japanese press: Osaka Mainichi, May 3, 1942, p. 1.

  Distribution of American medals: Johnston, pp. 78–79.

  Background of E. J. O’Hare: Ewing & Lundstrom, pp. 28–38, 75–86.

  I figured there wasn’t much to do… : Quoted in Life, p. 18.

  Chapter 10: Carmichael’s Raid

  making better progress… and inflict strong pressure on Australia… : AWM 54 (608/5/4).

  Results of first Japanese raid on Darwin: Gillison, pp. 430–31.

  Tomorrow we go on our first mission… and mission cal
led off… : Steinbinder, personal diary, Feb. 19, 1942.

  Conditions at Cloncurry: Ibid., Feb. 20, 1942.

  I was there for comfort… : Kingsland, interview with author, Nov. 29, 2005.

  Reduction of B-17s for first mission: Steinbinder diary, Feb. 22, 1942; also Salaker, p. 145.

  Details of first bomb runs by Lewis and Eaton: Saleker, pp. 145–46; also Gillison, p. 152.

  Eaton’s forced landing: Taylan, “Swamp Ghost: B-17E 41–2446” DVD.

  Carmichael’s assessment of enemy fighters: USAF oral history, p. 74.

  Cohen’s recollection of Zero attacks: Kingsland, interview with author.

  B-17 claim by Petty Officer Yoshina: Tagaya, correspondence with author, Jan. 26, 2004.

  Carmichael’s admission of poor bombing: USAF oral history, p. 74.

  The Japanese were very alert… and details of the Catalina dive-bombing attack: Kingsland, interview with author.

  14th Reconnaissance Squadron immobilized by dengue fever: Steinbinder diary, Mar. 11–17, 1942.

  Chapter 11: Yanks Down Under

  Arcadia conference: Craven & Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, Vol. IV, pp. 408–10.

  Background of Brett and his troubles with MacArthur: Cox, Air Power Leadership on the Front Line, pp. 39–43.

  MacArthur’s reputation, including “Dugout Doug”: Manchester, American Caesar, p. 236.

  Brett’s coziness with Australian politicians: Griffith, pp. 51–52.

  Aussie work habits, including smoke-o: The Marauder unofficial unit history, p. 23.

  Japanese attacks on Port Moresby: Tagaya, pp. 37–38; also Gillison, pp. 446, 453.

  Japanese aerial superiority: Ibid., p. 453.

  Fate of Petty Officer Nagatomo: Ibid.; also Hata & Izawa, p. 376.