number of studies supporting, epiphany resulting from, 14–15
observed cases of, 19, 46, 93, 112, 173, 201, 253, 279
probability of, awareness of, 32
ubiquity of, awareness of, 281
underestimating, 146
unnatural, impact of, examples of, 99, 282–285
See also specific taxa, landmasses, islands, and oceans
Oceanic island, defined, 12 (box)
Ocotea (Lauraceae) plants, 296
Oecomys rodents, 296
O’Grady, Patrick, 264, 265, 266
O’Hara, Robert, 197–198
O’helo papa, 75
Okinawa, 173
Old World
and land bridges, 156
rise in population of people in, 284
taxa involving, 27, 156, 157, 206, 212, 214–215, 219, 279, 283, 284
unnatural crossings involving, 282, 283–285
See also Africa; Asia; Europe
Old World monkeys, 210–215, 216, 217–218
Oligocene, 98, 99, 104, 106, 213, 246n, 270
“On the Law Which Has Regulated the Introduction of New Species” (Wallace), 29, 110, 153n
Ope’ape’a, 75
Oregon coast, 305–306
Oreskes, Naomi, 40
Origin of Continents and Oceans, The (Wegener), 38
Origin of Species, The (Darwin), 24, 30, 32, 38, 88, 100, 168, 178, 179, 197, 219–220, 267, 276
Original continent. See Pangea
Ortelius, Abraham, 34
Ostriches, 3, 69, 80 (fig.), 244–245
Oval-leaf clustervine, 75
Overall picture, seeing the, importance of, 141, 146, 147
Owl-eyed night monkeys, 223
Pacific Ocean
crossings involving, 75, 154, 162, 165, 215n, 224, 293
and generalizations about Hawaiian crossings, 262, 263, 303
and the Panamanian Isthmus, 13
tectonic plates and rift involving, 6–7
unnatural crossings involving, 99, 283
volcanoes encircling, 58
See also specific islands; specific landmasses bordering the ocean
Pacific Plate, 6, 60, 73, 99
Paleocene, 102n, 104
Paleontological data, reams of, 236–237
See also Fossil records
Paleozoic, 268
Panamanian Isthmus, 13, 224, 288, 291n
Panbiogeography, 23–24, 77 (fig.), 80 (fig.), 81, 270n
Panbiogeography (Croizat), 78–79, 83
Pangea, 36–37, 38, 45, 61, 67, 145, 151
See also Gondwana
Paradigm shift, process of, 272, 273–275
Parasites, 133–134, 139, 242, 293–294
Parlor game interest, 281
Patagonia, 232, 233
Paterson, Adrian, 241
Patterson, Colin, 66–67, 77, 269
Pa’u o Hi’iaka, 75
Pauling, Linus, 119, 126, 146
Pennsylvanian period, 34
Permian, 37, 229, 237
Peru, 283
Philippines, 198, 200
Phyllodactylid geckos, 295 (fig.)
Phylogenetics, 63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 89, 124, 153, 199–200, 199–200, 245, 262
Physics, theories in, 270n
Phytophthora infestans oomycete, 284
Pied Oystercatcher, 241
Pikaia (worm-like chordate), 298–299, 301
Pilgrims, 287
Pisonia trees, 259
Pittosporum shrubs/trees, 162
Pizarro, Francisco, 283
Plains viscacha (Lagostomus maximus), 291, 292 (fig.)
Plate tectonics, 4, 6, 15, 58–59, 60, 62, 63, 67, 69, 97, 117–118, 170, 180, 217, 229, 269–270, 275–276, 281
See also Continental drift
Platnick, Norm, 68, 87, 89–90, 118
Platyrrhini monkeys. See New World monkeys
Pleistocene, 104, 135, 238, 239, 250
Pliocene, 68, 104, 291, 296
Podocarp conifers, 162, 163, 240, 242
Poland, 9
Pole, Mike, 106–111, 117, 118, 160–161, 163, 164, 246n
Pollen, 103, 106, 109, 153
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 122–123, 124–126, 129, 133, 271
Polynesia, 75, 262
Popper, Karl, 1, 87, 91, 192, 196, 215
Posadas, Paula, 233n
Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), 283–285, 297
Pough, Harvey, 179
Power law, 237n
Preconceptions, blinded by, 185–186, 261, 268
Pre-paradigm period, 273–275
Primates, 131, 209, 220, 287–288
See also specific type
Príncipe, 175–177, 178, 179, 180–181, 189, 190 (fig.), 191 (fig.), 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 199, 200
Principles of Geology (Lyell), 28
Principles of Physical Geology (Holmes), 55
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (journal), 187, 188
Procyonids, 290, 291n
Proficient dispersers, 101, 160, 168–169, 172, 219
Pseudogenes, 260
Pterosaurs, 102, 222 (box), 234
Ptychadena newtoni frog, 177, 189–192, 195
Pueo, 75
Pygmy hippos, 44
Pygmy sundew (Drosera meristocaulis), 152–154, 155
Pyramid Lake, 207–208
Radiation, impact of, 223, 291–296
Radiometric dating, 54–55, 61, 136
Ranunculus lyalli buttercup, 18, 105, 162
Ratites, 3, 4, 11 (box), 13, 33, 69, 80–81, 89, 111, 244–246, 244–246, 269
Rats, 44, 79, 99, 204, 291
Red Sea, 97
Refutation. See Falsification
Relationships of groups, importance of, 52–53
Relativity theory, 270n, 276
Relaxed clock methods, 140–141, 157, 186, 268
Religion, influence of, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 81, 178–179, 197n, 207, 219, 234
Renealmia (Zingiberaceae) gingers, 296, 301
Renner, Susanne, 160, 170, 171 (fig.)
Retrograde motion, 272
Rhantus beetles, 265
Rheas, 3, 69, 80 (fig.), 244–245
Rhinella toads, 295 (fig.)
Ribbon snakes, 125
Rivas, Jesús, 152
Rocky Mountains, 17, 297
Rodent clock, 126, 139
Rodents, 15, 44, 141, 219, 299
See also specific type
Rodrigues, 76
Ronquist, Fred, 164–166, 167 (fig.), 170–171
Rosen, Donn, 48, 66–67, 68–69, 77, 84, 85, 91, 227, 269, 275
Round Island, 244
Russia, 284, 297
Salamanders, 179–180, 200
Salinity reduction, 192–193, 198
Samoa, 42, 268
Sampson, Scott, 249
San Andreas Fault, 6, 60
Sanger, Fred, 130
Sanmartín, Isabel, 164–166, 167 (fig.), 170–171
São Tomé, 175–177, 178, 179, 180–181, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 199, 261
“Sarawak paper” (Wallace), 29, 110, 153n
Scaptomyza fly, 264–265
Schaefer, Hanno, 160
Schell Creek Range, 187, 188
Schistocerca gregaria locust, 279, 280 (fig.)
Schoener, Amy, 72
Schoener, Tom, 72
Schuchert, Charles, 266, 267, 268
Science
Popper’s philosophy of, 1, 87
textbook version of, 62
Scientific revolutions,
structure of, view on, 272, 273
Scotland, 37
Sea of Cortés, 7, 8, 9, 190, 198, 200
Seafloor spreading, 57, 58, 59–60, 60n, 61, 90, 163, 216, 267, 270
See also Plate tectonics
Seed experiments, 26, 27, 32, 82, 168, 186, 198
Seeds, properties of, 79, 153, 169
Seychelles, 19, 180, 182, 186–187, 199, 225, 251, 252
Shahputra, Rizal, 131
Shared derived traits, defined, 49
Shark clock, 126, 139
Shattered-glass analogy, 70
Short-Eared Owl, 75
Sierra de la Laguna, 5, 7
Sierra Nevada, 17, 156, 187–188
Sigmodontine rodents, 290, 291, 293, 294, 296
Silversword plant, 75
Simplicity vs. complexity, addressing, 90–92, 146, 269–270
Simpson, George Gaylord, 45, 50, 65, 67, 78, 79, 83, 118, 147, 164, 266–267, 268, 290
Sister groups, defined, 12 (box)
Skinks, 203, 204–206, 223, 242, 281, 293, 295 (fig.)
Skottsberg, Carl, 277
“Slacker” species, notion of, 263, 264–265
Slow-running clocks, 126, 139
Smithsonian Institution, 170
“Smoking gun” concept, 218n
Snails, 26, 44, 93, 198, 219, 224, 281
Snake Range, 187, 188
Snakes, 97, 100, 141, 198, 206–207, 219, 247, 249, 294, 295
See also specific type
Snider-Pelligrini, Antonio, 34, 36
Somali tectonic plate, 182
Sonoran Desert, 156
Sooglossid frogs, 251
Sophora bean trees, 162
South America, 116, 118, 285
Carboniferous and Permian period, 37
continental shelf of, 229
contingency and unpredictability scenario involving, 300
and the Cretaceous, 248n
early assumptions about, 33
and ease of Atlantic crossings, 79
and the Eocene, 223
and the Falklands, 229, 230–231, 232, 233
final separation of, timetree depicting, 214 (fig.)
and the fit with Africa, 34, 36, 37, 40
and the Gondwana relict idea, 152
and Gondwanan breakup, 4, 11 (box), 61 (fig.), 142 (box), 170, 288
and the Great American Interchange, 289–290
influence of natural crossings on, 288–296
island-hopping routes to, 217 (fig.)
as an isolated island, 288–289
and the Isthmus of Panama, 288, 289–290
and the Jurassic, 230 (fig.)
and land bridges, 42–43, 290
and the Mesozoic, 63
ocean currents heading east from, 219
taxa involving, 3, 15, 21, 25, 49, 54, 63, 64 (fig.), 69 (fig.), 79, 87, 108, 109, 135, 142 (box), 153–154, 155, 161 (fig.), 165, 166, 170–171, 200, 204, 205, 206, 207 (fig.), 209, 212, 213, 214, 215, 218, 223, 231, 233, 265, 267, 279, 283, 286, 289–296, 294, 295–296, 300, 301
tracks and, 80 (fig.), 82
and the Triassic, 272
unnatural crossing from, example of, 283–284
South American Plate, 58–59
South Equatorial Current, 205
South Island, 17–18, 99, 104–106, 162, 240
Southeast Asia, 9, 12–13, 82, 161 (fig.), 180, 209, 248
Southern Alps, 104
Southern beeches (Nothofagus), 3, 4, 14, 17, 18, 69, 89, 102, 103, 106, 109, 111, 117, 162, 163, 166, 240, 242, 244, 246, 269, 281, 299
Southern Hemisphere, 3, 4, 14–15, 69, 272
See also specific southern landmasses, islands, and bodies of water
Space, Time, Form (Croizat), 79
Spanish colonization, 283, 284, 297
Speciation event, defined, 50
Speciation, importance of, for islands, 236, 251
Spider monkeys, 210, 286, 291
Spiders, 46, 172n, 219, 262, 281
Sporopollenin, 103
Squirrel monkeys, 223, 303
Sri Lanka, 173
St. Helena, 266, 268
Steamer-ducks, 225, 226
Stephens Island, 99
Stewart Island, 163
Stochastic extinction, 235, 238
Stone runs, 226
String theory, 270n
Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The (Kuhn), 272
Sturm, Helmut, 262–263, 306
Suess, Eduard, 33n
Sulawesi, 44, 173, 200, 209, 216, 286
Sumatra, 12, 131, 189
Sunda Shelf, 189
Sundews (Drosera), 105, 152–154, 155, 299
Sunflowers (Asteraceae), 18, 162–163
Supercontinents. See Gondwana; Pangea
Surface tension, 72
Suriname, 151, 279
Sweepstakes dispersal, defined, 10 (box)
Sweetwater Mountains, 156
Swordtail fishes and relatives, 68, 269
Symphonia globulifera (Clusiaceae) trees, 296
Systematic Zoology (journal), 84
Systematics and Biogeography (Nelson & Platnick), 68, 87, 89, 118
Taleb, Nassim Nicholas, 220, 222
Tamarins, 214 (fig.)
Tanzania, 19, 190
Tapeworms, 133–134, 139
Tarsiers, 214 (fig.), 215
Tasman Sea, 65, 97, 101, 108, 111, 162, 165, 166
Tasmania, 14, 82
Tasmantis. See Zealandia
Taxon, defined, 12 (box)
Taylor, Frank Bursley, 34, 36n
Technological “advances,” 237
Tectonic plates. See Plate tectonics
Tenrecs, 44, 143 (box), 247, 248
Tepuis, 151–154, 155
Tethys Sea, 221 (box), 287
Tethyshadros insularis dinosaur, 221–222 (box)
Thamnophis snakes. See Garter snakes
Thamnophis validus snake, 5–6, 7–8, 9 (fig.), 188, 190, 198
Thermus aquaticus (Taq) bacterium, 122, 125
Threadsnakes, 206, 281
Tidal force, 34, 38, 40, 54
Tierra del Fuego, 233
Timetree, defined, 12 (box)
Timetree of Life project, 141
Timor, 173
Tinamous, 245–246
Tipping point, 277
Tipping Point, The (Gladwell), 47
Toads, 178, 180, 200, 295
Toltecs, 287
Tomtit, 241
Tonga, 215n
Tortoises, 14, 19, 168–169, 219
Tracks, 80–81, 82, 82–83, 84, 85, 91, 100, 117
Transantarctic relationships, 49
Tree-of-life metaphor, 234
Trewick, Steve, 161–163, 241, 271, 277
Triassic, 117, 137, 272
Trinidad, 279
Tristan da Cunha, 76, 266, 268
Troglosironid harvestmen, 243
Tsunami, 131
Tuataras (Sphenodon punctatus), 16, 95, 96–97, 99, 100, 102, 246
Tuco-tucos, 291, 293, 303
Turdus thrushes, 295 (fig.), 296
Turtle, 68, 102, 242, 249, 250
Tussock grass, 17, 18, 104, 105
Tyrannosaurus dinosaur, 236, 240
Uganda, 190
Uniformitarianism, 28
United States, 153, 284, 287
Unnatural crossings, impact of, examples of, 99, 282–285
See also Human introductions
Unpredictability
archetypes of, 299–303
and contingency, 296, 297–299
&
nbsp; Upland Sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda), 93
Vegetable sheep, 18, 244
Vences, Miguel, 182, 183 (fig.), 184–185, 186–187, 188–189, 189–191, 199, 271
Venezuela, 151, 152–154, 156
Vicariance biogeography
appeal of, 269–270
back-and-forth debate involving, 273–274
drivers of, 70, 269–270
emphasis in, 13, 14
evidence versus preconceived theories in, addressing, 268–269, 270, 271
fading of extreme, 278
and the focus on New Zealand, 100–101
hardening of, 85–86
lack of universal adoption, 276
lens of, 234
near dominance of, 100
pendulum swings involving, 268, 273
rise of, 13–14, 170, 270
shift away from, back toward dispersal, 118, 166, 270–272, 277–278
spread of, 47, 48
See also Historical biogeography
Vicariance, defined, 11 (box)
Vicariance event, defined, 13
See also Climate change; Continental drift; Gondwanan breakup; Ice ages
Villumsen, Rasmus, 41
Vine, Fred, 39, 59–60, 62
Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis, 60n
Volcanic mountains/islands. See specific mountains/islands
Volcanic rock, 37, 58, 59
Volcanoes, 12 (box), 38, 56, 58, 60, 108, 178
Voyage of the Beagle, The (Darwin), 46, 293n
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 28–30, 31, 32, 33, 38, 78, 79, 81–82, 92, 96, 110, 153n, 198, 273n, 288
Wallace’s Line, 33
Wallis, Graham, 161–163
Watson, James D., 130
Weather unpredictability, 301
Wegener, Alfred, 34–41, 42, 45, 54, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 229, 267
Wegenerians, 67, 68
West Falkland Island, 250
West Indies, 206, 208, 223, 265, 279, 293
“What if” scenarios, 297
Whipsnake, 76
White-Faced Herons, 86, 87 (fig.)
Whittington, Harry, 298
Wiley, Ed, 91–92
Willets, 224
Wolves, 2, 226, 227, 231, 232 (fig.), 233
Wonderful Life (Gould), 297–298, 299
Woody legumes, 156–158, 159
“World of Wild Animals” map, 1–3
Worm lizards (Amphisbaenians), 142–143 (box), 203, 204, 206, 207 (fig.), 223, 281, 295 (fig.)
Xenodontine snakes, 294–295, 301
Yellowstone National Park, 122
Yoder, Anne, 198, 248, 249, 250, 277
Zealandia, 4, 97–98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 109, 117, 160, 162, 171, 221 (box), 240, 246
See also Lord Howe Island; New Caledonia; New Zealand; Norfolk Island
Zucchini, 285, 286, 287
Zuckerkandl, Emile, 119, 126, 146
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