Manifest Destiny: HEGEMONY

by Brian Boyington

  The Chilean and United States warships were three miles apart when waterspouts from incoming shells exploded one-half mile forward of the Chilean warships. Realizing they were almost in range of United States Naval long guns, the Huascar and her two consorts came about and fled south towards Chimbote Bay. The USS warships shortened sail and slowed the steam engines, waiting for Admiral Kincaid to catch up. One hour later the Puritan Class Monitors arrived, and Admiral Kincaid signaled Captain's repair on-board.

  Admiral Kincaid held the captain’s conference in the wardroom of USS Kearsarge. He began the meeting welcoming his captains to the wardroom. He then stated: The Chileans know we are here, and that we have come in force. Maybe our demonstration of firepower will motivate them to depart Chimbote Bay in peace. If they do not offer battle, I am inclined to let them leave. In case they do decide to fight, we will first have to eliminate their corvettes and any torpedo boats, then take on their ironclads. If the Chileans offer battle, here is the action plan. Following the meeting, the captains returned to their warships to prepare them for their next day’s arrival at Chimbote Bay and potential battle.

  The next morning at 9 am, Admiral Kincaid paraded his warships from north to south in front of Chimbote Bay, then came about and repeated the process from south to north. Signal flags broke out above USS Kearsarge signaling USS Spectre to raise the international black flag for parley and enter Chimbote Bay. With gun ports closed and the parley flag flying from the foremast, Captain Dewey steamed USS Spectre into the bay verifying the number and type of Chilean warships.

  Captain Charles Condell de LaHaza on Almiralte Cochrane ordered the black parley flag flown, and signaled Captain Dewey an invitation to come aboard. A lieutenant met Dewey at the rail, piped him aboard, and escorted him to Captain Condell’s quarters where he handed Condell a letter from Admiral Kincaid and a copy of the ninety-nine-year lease agreement between Peruvian President Nicholas Pierola and the United States.

  After reading the letter and lease agreement, Condell stated: “We do not recognize Pierola as President of Peru as he seized power in a Coup. A signed peace treaty between Chile and Peru does not exist. Therefore we are still at war. We took Chimbote Bay in that war and will either keep it or use it as a negotiating chip during any peace agreement.” Tossing Admiral Kincaid’s letter and the lease agreement across the table, Condell continued: “Chile does not recognize the validity of this lease agreement, and we will not surrender this valuable asset to the United States.”

  Dewey, sensing that there was nothing else to discuss stood up to leave. He stated: Captain Condell, I urge you to reconsider. We have more and larger ships and out-gun your vessels. To stand and fight will be futile, and will only result in the loss of your warships and men. I will bring your reply back to Admiral Kincaid. The decision will be his. However, the consequences will be yours.” With that, Dewey saluted and left, boarded his longboat back to USS Spectre which steamed out of the bay back to the Admiral Kincaid’s fleet.

  Admiral Kincaid signaled USS Spectre – Captain repair on-board. Dewey ordered his ship to steam close on the flagship; then he boarded his longboat to be rowed to USS Kearsarge. Kincaid requested a full report. Dewey informed Kincaid that he observed Chilean had the Almiralte Cochrane, the Huascar, and two corvettes. He also reported that he did not see any of the reported torpedo boats, but they could have been concealed behind the corvettes. Dewey then repeated his conversation with Captain Condell and the probability that the Chileans would fight.

  Kincaid then asked: “How formidable a warship is the Almiralte Cochrane.”

  Dewey replied: “She is a British built ironclad, and her interior hull is all-metal construction. Captain Condell’s cabin had all metal walls. She is a battery warship with three main guns and two smaller ones in the amidships battery on both sides. The main guns look to be nine to 10 inches. She appears to have a reinforced armored belt on both sides. She would be formidable in single combat and was responsible for the capture of Huascar from the Peruvian Navy. Two of our Puritan Class warships should be able to defeat her. Huascar is an older monitor style warship and should not be a significant challenge to our fleet.”

  Admiral Kincaid then asked: “Did you see Almiralte Cochrane’s sister ship the Blanco Encalada”? Dewey replied: “She was not in the bay. However, I suspect she is lurking someplace close and will engage once our ships are committed. That would explain why Captain Condell was willing to engage against overwhelming odds.”

  Kincaid then said: “George, stay on-board.” Then to his flag lieutenant, he said: “Signal to all Captain's Repair on-board. Then speaking to Dewey, he said: “It will take time for them to arrive. You served under John Winslow. What kind of man was he, and what was it like to serve under him”? Dewey recounted his three years as an Executive Officer on the original USS Kearsarge, and her final battle at Bermuda; when the seriously wounded Captain John Winslow went down with his ship.

  Kincaid thanked Dewey for his dramatic re-telling of the story. He then stated: “The Navy will always remember John for his ingenuity and courage. They honored him with his posthumous promotion to Admiral, and increased that honor by naming USS Kearsarge’s sister ship after him.”

  Minutes later, the Captains arrived, and Kincaid laid out his plan of action. He cautioned his captains against overconfidence. He reminded them that the Almiralte Cochrane and Blanco Encalada were formidable opponents and that the Chilean Navy had recently experienced victories over warships from Bolivia and Peru.

  Chapter 4

  March 30, 1881.

  Admiral Lee’s fleet steamed into Rio de Janeiro, situated inside Guanabana Bay. The crew in dress uniforms lined the decks as each ship fired salutes to Forts Santa Cruz, Sao Jao, Lajos, and Villegaignon. Fireworks erupted from the dozens of other nations warships anchored in the bay gathered to celebrate the 50th Jubilee of Emperor Pedro II. Guard boats escorted the fleet to mooring anchorages in the bay, and gaily decorated steamboats surrounded the warships to provide passage for shore leave.

  A special diplomatic steamboat moored next to USS Indiana. Minister Plenipotentiary Henry Hilliard greeted Secretary of State Garfield, Admiral Lee and Captain Powell. Together, and with an entourage of aides in a separate boat, the diplomatic party were escorted to the palace dock.

  A Majo Domo escorted Garfield, Hilliard, Lee, and Powell into the palace for their scheduled audience with the Emperor. Two footmen in brightly colored livery carried an ornate chest carrying the gifts for Pedro II. Other footmen escorted the entourage to another reception chamber.

  Pedro II warmly greeted the diplomatic party from the United States. Plenipotentiary Hilliard introduced them one by one. Secretary of State Garfield then spoke.

  “Your Highness, President Blaine, on behalf of the people of the United States of America, presents you these gifts on your Fiftieth Jubilee These gifts are meant to symbolize the bonds of friendship between the United States of America and the Empire of Brazil.”

  He then gestured to the two footmen who brought the chest forward, placed it on a table and opened it for the Emperor. Inside were busts of George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and scroll copies of the Declaration of Independence, and Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address.

  The gifts greatly moved Pedro II, who revered his father Pedro I for leading Brazil's independence movement in 1823, and was an admirer of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. He said: “On behalf of the citizens of the Empire of Brazil, I accept these gifts and the bonds of friendship they represent.”

  Garfield replied: “Your Highness, President Blaine would like to solidify relations between The United States and the Empire of Brazil. Minister Hilliard is eager to work with your government agencies to explore means of cooperation.”

  Pedro II smiled broadly at the suggestion then said: “In due time, We will have to arrange these meetings He then gestured his guests to follow him into the grand reception hall where his court laid out a gala banquet for all the visi
ting dignitaries.

  Garfield, Hilliard, Lee, and Powell mixed freely with the other diplomats and military representatives. Garfield met with the Ambassador of the United Kingdom Sir Francis Clare Ford. Ambassador Ford expressed some diplomatic disbelief at Garfield’s explanation of why the United States sent such a potent fleet to participate in Pedro II 50th Jubilee boat parade.

  Garfield chuckled and replied: The United States desires to demonstrate that we are a strong and dependable ally, whose purpose is to provide stability in the region. We just demonstrated that fact in Columbia. The intervention of our Naval assets resulted in the crushing of the Cartegena revolution. We secured the release of all the diplomatic hostages, including your Consul. Our fleet then provided logistic and naval gun support to the Columbian Army as they recaptured Cartegenia. That enabled their freely elected government to assume power.

  Our new Ambassador Isaiah James was present for the inauguration of President Nunez who expressed his thanks for our assistance. With its task completed our naval fleet departed with the repatriated diplomatic personnel. Unlike the European powers, the United States has no colonial ambitions. It is in our best interest to facilitate stable governments in our neighbor nations. Then as friends and neighbors, we can develop mutually profitable relations.”

  Ambassador Ford was unconvinced, but for diplomatic purposes congratulated Garfield for the successful campaign in Columbia. He ended the conversation by stating: “I am sure that you will succeed in profitable ventures in Columbia. However, only the future will determine how mutually beneficial it will be for the Columbians.” With that, he shook Garfield’s hand and moved on to the reception.

  Admiral Lee was meeting with his Royal Navy counterpart Vice Admiral Sir F. L. McClintock who was commander of the West Indies Fleet based in Jamaica. McClintock’s flagship was the armored cruiser HMS Northampton, which was moored ½ mile from USS Indiana. Lee invited McClintock to tour USS Indiana and to be a guest during the scheduled fleet maneuvers. McClintock agreed. The transfer would take place following the parade of ships, which would commence the following day.

  The Parade of ships was uneventful. Naval ships from Brazil led the formation. Each vessel fired a salute as it steamed past the Emperor’s reviewing stand. Following at the standard distance of 2,000 yards were the warships from the United States led by USS Indiana, followed by USS Massachusetts, USS Onondaga, USS Tecumseh, USS Weehawken, USS Miantonoth, USS Towanda and USS Sangamon. Warships from The United Kingdom, France, and Portugal comprised the balance of the parade.

  The next morning, the United States warships departed. Admiral McClintock boarded USS Indiana with due ceremony. He accompanied Admiral Lee and Captain Powell on a tour of the vessel which included the two twelve-inch gun turrets, four six-inch turrets. He was impressed with a demonstration of the breech-loading of the guns. He commented that the Royal Navy was installing very similar guns on their newest Battleships. Admiral Lee wryly commented: “The Germans adopted our design. Your designers have learned from them.” McClintock laughed heartily and said: “Admiral, all is fair in love and war.” Lee and Powell chuckled in assent.

  The next morning the fleet maneuvers began off the south coast of Brazil. The warships of the other nations followed the United States Fleet as observers. The Argentine Ambassador, Juan Carlos DeFilippo was an observer aboard HMS Northhampton.

  The maneuvers began with USS Indiana on the port side a formation called Line Abreast. This formation placed the warships parallel to each other, separated by two-thousand feet at a speed of eight knots.

  Admiral Lee then signaled for formation Echelon Right. That formation placed USS Indiana at the lead of a line of battleships at a forty-five-degree angle. This formation placed each warship to the starboard and two-thousand feet to the rear of its predecessor. Echelon Right or Left is an aggressive formation, as it allows each battleship overlapping fields of fire against an opposing fleets line of battle. It is the precursor move to Crossing the T. Lee then ordered the formation Line of Battle. This maneuver would allow the naval formation to effectively cross the “T” of the enemy battle line.

  Admiral McClintock, who shared the Bridge with Admiral Lee and Flag Captain Powell congratulated Admiral Lee for the quickness and effectiveness of the maneuvers. Each battleship executed the maneuvers with precision, maintaining their relative positions in the formations. Admiral Lee smiled then said: “Thank you, Admiral, it means a lot to hear that from a fellow professional.” Then turning to Captain Powell, he said: “Signal fleet to form Line Abreast and increase speed to ten knots. Let’s do this again.” The formations were repeated a third time at twelve knots. All three attempts were considered to be successful.

  McClintock was very impressed, but also puzzled as to why he, a Royal Navy Admiral was provided such close examination of United States Naval Tactics. The privilege was particularly puzzling as twelve years earlier both nations were at war and had fought against each other three times in the past 100-years.

  On the voyage back to Rio Admiral Lee explained to Mcclintock: “Our nations have more common interests than issues that separate us. There are far more reasons for cooperation than for conflict. We are witnessing exciting times. The days of sail-powered battleships pounding each other in a line of battle are over. We are writing a new book on naval tactics. These tactics will evolve as gunnery and armor improve. You are witnessing the current cutting edge. What happens in a year or decade is yet to be decided.

  My colleague Admiral Treat is practicing other maneuvers on his way back to Samana Bay. Depending on what happens in Chimbote Bay, Admiral Kincaid may be able to test them out in naval combat. Our goal, with the invitation of the Peruvian government, is to establish a naval base there peacefully. The Chileans show very aggressive tendencies and may test our resolve. They have been very successful against the Bolivians and Peruvians on both land and sea. I am concerned they will try to test our mettle. If so, the consequences will be on their heads.“

  The next day in Rio was full of activity. Ship’s captains prepared their vessels to leave. Various ambassadors submitted numerous requests for inspection tours of the United States Navy battleships. Most were impressed with their advanced designs.

  Ambassador Hilliard made appointments to further the discussions. Accommodations were available for those nations wishing the contract the construction of the Massachusetts Class Battleships for their navies.

  The Brazilian Admiralty advised Emperor Pedro II that the United States would construct battleships for the Brazilian Navy. Pedro II ordered them to begin negotiations for two of the warships.

  The Argentine Ambassador Juan Carlos DeFilippo expressed interest in negotiations for the purchase of existing warships, and the construction of the modern battleships. Ambassador Higgins, after consulting with Admiral Lee arranged for a goodwill visit to Buenos Aires.

  Admiral Lee had informed him that the new Maine Class battleships would surpass the Massachusetts Class battleships in size, tonnage, armor, and weapons. The three Maine Class warships were nearing completion in shipyards in Norfolk, Philadelphia, and Brooklyn. Three of the hulls of the newer Connecticut Class Battleships were under construction in Boston, Samana Bay, and Mare Island. Other navy yards were competing for the contracts for the remaining three battleships. These would be the first battleships constructed of steel.

  The trip to Rio was considered to be a smashing success. Both Brazil and Argentina had expressed interest in purchasing existing warships, and others were eager to have new battleships constructed. With Rio a success, the trip to Buenos Aires had great potential. The next morning, Admiral Lee’s fleet sailed out of Rio and set course for Buenos Aires.

  Chapter 5

  On April 2, following the inauguration of Rafael Nunez, the new President of Columbia greeted the new United States Ambassador, Isaiah James, General Grissom, and Admiral Treat. The new President congratulated Isaiah on his promotion to Ambassador and expressed appreciation to Admiral Tr
eat for his timely intervention in Cartegenia. He also thanked General Grissom for the United States role in the hostage release, and the suppression of the rebellion in Cartegena.

  In a private meeting with President Nunez, Ambassador James indicated that the United States looked forward to productive relations with Columbia. He mentioned the potential of joint projects, including the construction of a canal through Columbia’s northern province of Panama. The French already had a contract to build a sea-level canal, similar to the Suez Canal. Ambassador James stressed the impracticability of such a plan, as beyond the coastal plain the interior of the area is dominated by a range of mountains. Those mountains and the heavy rains would doom the French plan to failure.

  Nunez understood the engineering difficulties facing the French plan, which was approved by his predecessor. He stated: “Let's see what happens to the French project. If it fails, we can negotiate your proposal.”