Rorke's Drift

by Adrian Greaves

  2 The location of the Commissariat store

  In order to locate the position of the British Commissariat store a trench was excavated at right angles from the present church across the battlefield towards the rocky ledge for a distance of some 12 metres. As the aim of the excavation was to look for a specific feature, the trench was excavated to varying depths with pick and shovels and no sieving was undertaken. Close to the church the trench reached bedrock at about 1.2m while near the end of the trench it was reached at only 45cm. This is because there is a pronounced slope down from the church to the kraal and the position of the original redoubt.

  However, while excavating the trench some dressed stone blocks were recovered 3 metres from the church. Stratigraphically these stones are assisted with a level of sandstone rubble and red brick some 50cm from the soil surface. Most of the historic artefactual remains such as Martini-Henry cartridge cases and gin bottle fragments were found close to these stones. The excavation strategy was then altered to determine whether these stones were in fact the foundations of the store. Two square metres were uncovered to the west of the trench. More dressed stones were uncovered at the same depth as the previous finds and clearly formed part of the same structure including a well-developed line of sandstone blocks, on occasions two stones high. In addition it was interesting to note the presence of decomposing red brick in association with these stones. It would appear that the store was built of both sandstone and red brick. Large numbers of gin bottle fragments, rusted iron objects and china were found on the inside (i.e. south) of the line of stones. Excavations, however, failed to locate any evidence of an interior floor within the structure.

  After following the foundations in a westerly direction, further excavations were undertaken to the east. The excavation of 8 square metres revealed what would appear to be one corner of the store. The corner was well built and more substantial than the foundation stones in the other excavated areas. In addition, a roughly constructed stone wall angles out from this corner in a northerly direction. It is suggested that this roughly built stone wall is the remains of the fortifications of Fort Bromhead, built immediately after the battle and linking the ruins of the hospital with the store and well-built kraal. The stones used for Fort Bromhead were probably used in the construction of the church, mission house and school buildings. The highest concentration of bone and Martini-Henry cartridge cases was recovered from the rubble layer in this excavated area.

  It would appear that the clearly defined row of stones relates to the British Commissariat store and Dr Webley believed that the foundation stones were probably those of the outer or front wall.

  3 Excavations on the battlefield

  After establishing the position of the ‘hospital’ and ‘store’ a number of trenches were excavated to bisect the outer lines of the battlefield. Some trenches were sited along the southern margin while others were intended to sample the top of the rocky ledge to the north. Although the barricades were of a temporary nature, it was hypothesized that particularly dense numbers of cartridge cases and other military debris might indicate these lines. The absence of a clear stratigraphy on the battlefield itself suggests that both the levelling of the site prior to the construction of the new mission house and church in 1882 and gardening activities over a period of 100 years have destroyed much of the original stratigraphy. The dark loamy soil contained fragments of yellow clay, red brick lenses and the densest concentration of artefacts at depths of 0.3–0.5m.

  It was further hypothesized that artefacts relating to the battle and to the subsequent occupation of the site by British soldiers between February and March 1879 would have been dumped beneath the ledge and would thus be concentrated in this area. Three large areas were therefore excavated immediately below the ledge. Very little artefactual material was recovered from these lower excavations. The dark brown soil was very shallow and overlaid sterile yellow clay. The deposit consisted mainly of recent builders’ rubble with virtually no historic material. An official from the Natal Provincial Association Works Branch office in Dundee informed Dr Webley that during the centenary celebrations at Rorke’s Drift in 1979 a bulldozer had been used to ‘neaten’ the area below the ledge. The soil from this area may have been used to construct the ramp onto the battlefield so that visitors to the site could have more convenient access to the battlefield during the celebrations. In addition he reported that members of the public had dug extensively at Rorke’s Drift and at Fort Melvill during 1979 in search of artefacts relating to the battle and this is confirmed by newspaper reports from that time.

  4 The walls of Fort Bromhead

  It was hoped that the area next to the ramp leading up to the rocky ledge on the battlefield would provide some evidence of the gate of Fort Bromhead. However, only recent builders’ rubble was recovered, indicating that this area has been disturbed, perhaps during the construction of the ramp to the site during the centenary celebrations of 1979.

  A number of areas were excavated in order to extend the stone ‘pathway’ first found in 1988. The first three areas contained some stone walling but were not very rich in artefacts. The next area, situated next to the concrete plinth, was rich in green bottle glass pieces. Two badges, a brass sphinx and a brass crown, were found here. It was initially thought that the presence of a .577 slug in this area probably indicated extensive disturbance to the deposit but this view has since been re-evaluated.

  The most extensive evidence for stone walling was found in the next area where quartzite cobbles and red brick seemed to form part of a wall. The excavations were enlarged to expose more of this feature. Associated with the walling were several cartridge cases, glass, bone and iron objects. It would appear that this might be the remains of the front wall of Fort Bromhead. This wall was left in situ, photographed and then covered in plastic sheeting and sand. Portions of Fort Bromhead were therefore found along the front (north) of the battlefield as well as adjoining the back corner of the British store.

  5 A metal-detector survey of the slope of Shiyane (Oskarsberg)

  One of the aims of the archaeological research had been to attempt to gain new insights into the Zulu side of the battle. No artefacts were recovered which could unequivocally be linked to them. With this in mind, Dr Webley and her team determined to survey the slopes of Shiyane, in particular examining the caves and ledges from which the Zulus are reported to have fired on the British. Most of the mortalities suffered by the British were as a result of Zulu sharpshooters firing from Shiyane. Since tourists have visited this area for over 100 years, the team decided that a metal-detector survey would be the most economical means of recovering buried spears and spent bullets. At least three slugs of a .577 calibre were recovered from a cave overlooking the battlefield. They were within a metre of each other and were probably dropped by the same sharpshooter. The calibre of these bullets matched those of a wax-moulded bullet recovered from the front ledge of the battlefield. Furthermore, during the construction of a car park in front of the battlefield similar wax-moulded, fired slugs were recovered. These discoveries suggested that the team were recovering bullets that had been used during the battle of 1879. The fact that many of these slugs were recovered from the car park area (to the north of the battlefield) confirms reports that the Zulus were overshooting their targets.

  One of the spent bullets from the car park area had three rifling marks that suggested to a gun expert that it had been fired in an Enfield rifle. This would confirm observations in an article on firearms in the Zulu kingdom by Professor Guy7 that muzzle-loaders were fairly common in the period up to the 1870s. The Zulus could purchase both percussion Enfields and Tower muskets cheaply from suppliers in Mozambique, but these weapons were frequently obsolete and ineffective.

  It is tempting to link the percussion caps found on the front of the rocky ledge to muzzle-loaders used by the Zulus during the battle. However, Mechanick8 has claimed that some of the Natal Native Contingent were still armed with muzzle-loading,
percussion Enfields. The percussion caps may well have been dropped prior to the battle, before the NNC fled the scene. However, they may perhaps also be linked to James Rorke’s occupation of the site. His will of 1876 lists ‘a Rifle, a Dble [double-barrelled?] gun and a revolver with cartridges’. We may also assume that since Rorke was a trader he probably dealt in arms and ammunition.

  The metal-detector survey also recovered a number of Martini-Henry slugs in the vicinity of the caves on Shiyane suggesting that the British sol­diers were shooting at a distance of 400 yards or more with their rifles.

  Artefactual Remains

  Fauna

  Large samples of faunal remains were recovered from the excavations. Areas around the mission house as well as close to the rocky ledge were particularly rich in what appeared to be sheep, goat and cattle remains. The historic accounts indicate that livestock was slaughtered for the soldiers at the front of Fort Bromhead. Dr Webley tentatively identified pig and baboon from the same site. Other finds included a piece of ivory tooth and a grooved and snapped bone tube.

  Metal

  Two iron hoes were recovered behind the mission house next to doorways which have since been bricked in. The hoes were planted vertically in the soil and were used as shoe scrapers by the missionaries. Rusted nails were most commonly recovered. Other finds include buttons, buckles, tins, a spoon and a fork handle, a penknife, a trowel, iron bars, the heel of a boot, watch chains, brass razor blades, regimental buttons, small brass contain­ers and coins including an 1862 Queen Victoria halfpenny. The sphinx badge (of the 24th Regiment) would probably have been worn on the collar, while the crown badge had probably broken off a helmet.

  A total of thirty-three Martini-Henry cartridge cases and seven unfired Martini-Henry bullets are all that bear testimony to the battle. Eleven percussion caps were found to the front of the rocky ledge. Unusual calibres include a .38 Smith and Wesson cartridge. One twelve-bore shotgun firing pin was recovered from Extension 5 among all the Martini-Henry cartridges suggesting that other firearms may also have been used during the battle. It is possible that this cartridge dates to the occupation of the site after the battle, as many officers owned their own hunting rifles. The wax-moulded slug of .577 calibre recovered from the rocky ledge matches slugs found both in a cave on Shiyane and in the car park area to the front of the actual fortified area. They present new light on the Zulu side of the battle.

  Glass

  Of interest were the many pieces of melted glass around the kitchen area of the mission house and under the floor in the excavated room. They suggest a high temperature that may be related to the fire in the hospital. Generally most of the glass fragments from the excavation were either olive green or aqua coloured. One bottle stopper bore the embossed letters of Lea & Perrins. The majority of glass fragments recovered near the store were dark green and probably derive from spirit bottles. Two square-based gin bottles were partially reconstructed; one had the name ‘Schiedam’ embossed on the side, another had ‘Schiedam’ embossed on a shoulder seal.

  Ceramics

  Large numbers of ceramic pieces were recovered, the majority from around the mission house and very few from the store area. Several pot sherds were found around the mission house. They are all undecorated and it is impossible to determine whether they pre-date 1849 or are contemporary with the historic occupation. However, the sherds are most common around the kitchen area and were found together with imported glass and china fragments. This may indicate that either Rorke or the later missionaries used locally fired clay pots or employed people who did.

  Conclusions

  All the aims of the archaeological project at Rorke’s Drift were achieved but with varying degrees of success. Sections of the foundations of the hospital were recovered under the floor of the present mission-house-cum-museum. Charcoal pieces and fragments of melted glass confirm that this structure overlies the ruins of the field hospital burnt down by the Zulus.

  The foundation stones of the front wall of the British Commissariat store were also located. It appears to have been largely situated underneath the present church, which would mean that the marker stones used to delineate the position of the store are incorrectly placed. They should be moved back (i.e. southward or towards Shiyane) some 8 metres. Excavations have uncovered 20m of the front foundations of the store and it is therefore quite possible that the store could have been 80ft in length as described by Otto Witt.

  It is clear that the very intensive occupation of the battlefield for some three months after the battle probably resulted in a fairly complex stratigraphy. However, the deposit in and around the battlefield appears to have been subject to considerable disturbance right up to 1979 and it now seems unlikely that much would be gained by more extensive excavations of the area.

  In addition to finding the position of the store, excavations also appear to have uncovered at least a portion of the walls of Fort Bromhead. A section of roughly constructed stone wall was found adjoining the back corner of the store while a substantial portion of walling was also uncovered on the edge of the rocky ledge.

  One important discovery, which resulted from the metal-detector survey, is that it appears that the Zulu were indeed over-firing the battlefield. It was recommended that another survey be undertaken of the slopes of Shiyane once the grass has been burnt even though Dr Webley believed that most of the material has been collected by visitors to the site during the last 100 years.

  Aerial photographs of the mission area have highlighted some unusual features such as cross-hatching in the field in front of the mission house and circular features near the turnstile in front of the rocky ledge. These features may be due to the British occupation of the area in 1879 but they could equally be ascribed to the agricultural activities of the missionaries; only archaeological research will solve this issue. Furthermore, Dr Webley felt that research should also be aimed at integrating the site with Fort Melvill, the military road to Isandlwana, May’s Hotel, Sihayo’s kraal and Isandlwana itself as Rorke’s Drift should not be viewed in isolation.

  The excavations at Rorke’s Drift are a salutary reminder of the significant changes that can occur at a particular site over a very short period of time (archaeologically speaking). Despite the scale of the military conflict at Rorke’s Drift, very few military items were recovered which support the historical accounts.9

  CHAPTER 18

  A Visitor’s Guide to Rorke’s Drift

  This battlefield is the most famous of all the Zulu War locations. It covers a very small area, no larger than the size of three tennis courts, where eight officers and 131 British and Colonial soldiers held off an attacking force of 4,500 Zulus for over twelve hours. The British soldiers of B Company 2/24th (2nd Warwickshire) Regiment formed the guard of the Centre Column’s supply base and temporary hospital at Rorke’s Drift. The attacking Zulus had, earlier in the day, constituted the reserve of the attacking Zulu army at the battle of Isandlwana, some 10 miles (16km) away, but had not taken part in the battle. It is most probable that this force of reserves then attacked Rorke’s Drift and neighbouring farms to redress this imbalance, to maintain their prestige, and to obtain supplies of food. The site was originally a trading post and had been established by James Rorke in 1850. He died in October 1875 and the site was quickly purchased by Swedish missionaries to be used as a mission station. The new missionary, Otto Witt, who converted Rorke’s bungalow home into his own residence, turned Rorke’s store into a church. On the day of the battle, the British commandeered the site and converted the church back into a store and the house into a hospital. Today the store has been rebuilt as a church and the hospital, Witt’s home, which was rebuilt after the battle, is a fine museum. The local people are very friendly and helpful.

  Location The nearest towns are Dundee 30 miles (50km) and Nqutu 16 miles (48km). It is 16 miles (26km) from Helpmekaar and 10 miles (16km) from Isandlwana by road. There are no facilities other than the tea room, toilets and post office. />
  Distinguishing features An impressive and emotionally inspiring small battlefield covering a tiny area that is linked to the battlefield of Isandlwana. The site is dominated by the Oskarsberg hill, named by Witt after the Swedish king; the Zulus know it as Shiyane, the ‘eyebrow’. The actual Drift or river crossing is about half a mile (800m) by foot or 1 mile (1.6km) by car. The Orientation Centre sells light meals and drinks during the main part of the day as well as maps, books and souvenirs.

  Points of interest at Rorke’s Drift in suggested order

  1 The Rorke’s Drift Orientation Centre and museum. This building occupies the site of the hospital during the battle. See the excellent diorama in the museum, which has numerous pictures and artefacts.

  2 The central battlefield.

  3 The British cemetery. Note that the British deserter, Corporal Anderson, is buried in the cemetery, but not the civilian storekeeper, Mr Byrne. The centre cross was crafted by Private Melsop of C Company 2/24th; he had been a stonemason by trade before enlisting with the 24th Regiment.

  4 The church. (The store during the battle). Visitors are always made most welcome.

  5 Zulu graves. There are three marked mass graves, each with a memorial stone in English, Zulu and Afrikaans. The only other Zulu memorials are at Isandlwana and the site of the Ulundi battlefield.

  6 James Rorke’s grave. Rorke requested he should be buried under 3ft (1m) of concrete to prevent his remains being disturbed – he then, according to legend, committed suicide.

  7 The Oskarsberg Mountain. This hill dominates the river crossing and is a commanding feature and a major landmark. One can climb it, starting at the visitors’ centre at Rorke’s Drift. The round trip should take about seventy minutes. The view from the top is spectacular.