A Peace to End all Peace

by David Fromkin

  14 Ibid., p. 215.

  15 Aaron S. Klieman, Foundations of British Policy in the Arab World: The Cairo Conference of 1921 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), p. 56.

  16 Kedourie, Middle East, p. 192.

  17 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1971), p. 408.

  18 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Leachman Papers.

  19 Sachar, Middle East, p. 372.

  20 Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, pp. 408–9.

  21 Klieman, Foundations of British Policy, p. 57.

  22 Ibid., p. 58.

  23 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 2: 1919–1931 (London: Collins, 1972), p. 201.

  24 John Darwin, Britain, Egypt, and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of War, 1918–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 200.

  25 Ibid.

  26 Ibid.

  CHAPTER 52

  1 Kenneth O. Morgan, Consensus and Disunity: The Lloyd George Coalition Government 1918–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), p. 119.

  2 Harold Nicolson, Curzon: The Last Phase 1919–1925 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934), p. 134.

  3 Ibid., p. 122.

  4 Richard H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917–1921, Vol. 3: The Anglo-Soviet Accord (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 353.

  5 Nicolson, Curzon, p. 138.

  6 Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, Vol. 3, p. 352, n. 11.

  7 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 2: July 1919–March 1921, p. 1103.

  8 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 2: 1919–1931 (London: Collins, 1972), p. 202.

  9 Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, Vol. 3, p. 374.

  10 Ibid., p. 380.

  11 Ibid., p. 378.

  12 Ibid., p. 377.

  13 Ibid., p. 386.

  14 Ibid., p. 388.

  15 Professor Richard H. Ullman of Princeton University, in the work cited above.

  16 John Darwin, Britain, Egypt, and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of War, 1918–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 214.

  CHAPTER 53

  1 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 23. Document M1/19/9.

  2 Aaron S. Klieman, Foundations of British Policy in the Arab World: The Cairo Conference of 1921 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), p. 58.

  3 Ibid.

  4 The Times, 16 August 1985, p. 11.

  CHAPTER 54

  1 Richard H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917–1921, Vol. 3: The Anglo-Soviet Accord (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 324.

  2 Ibid., p. 328.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Ibid., p. 329.

  5 Ibid.

  6 Ibid., p. 327.

  7 Ibid., p. 326–7.

  8 Ibid., p. 326.

  9 Martin Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 2: July 1919–March 1921, pp. 988–9.

  10 Ibid., p. 989.

  11 Ibid., p. 1025.

  12 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), p. 331.

  13 Ibid., p. 371.

  14 Lord Riddell’s Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference and after: 1918–1923 (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934), p. 163.

  15 Ibid.

  16 Ibid.

  17 Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, Vol. 3, p. 427.

  CHAPTER 55

  1 Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923, rev. edn. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964), p. 1.

  2 Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. 19, p. 254, quoted in Allen S. Whiting, Soviet Policy in China 1912–1924 (Stanford University Press Paperback, 1968), p. 21.

  3 Olaf Caroe, Soviet Empire: The Turks of Central Asia and Stalinism, 2nd edn (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1967), p. 111.

  4 Pipes, Formation of the Soviet Union, p. 155.

  CHAPTER 56

  1 Edward Hallett Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), Vol. 3, p. 249, n. 1.

  2 Ibid., p. 313.

  3 Louise Bryant, Mirrors of Moscow (New York: T. Seltzer, 1923), p. 157.

  4 Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, p. 327.

  5 Ibid., p. 266, n. 2.

  6 Ibid., p. 267.

  7 Ibid., p. 263.

  8 Ibid., p. 264.

  9 Ibid., p. 268.

  10 Ibid., n. 3.

  11 Ibid., p. 290.

  12 Leon B. Poullada, Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan, 1919–1929: King Amanullah’s Failure to Modernize a Tribal Society (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1973), p. 248.

  13 Bryant, Mirrors of Moscow, p. 149.

  14 Ibid., p. 160.

  15 Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey, Mission To Tashkent (London: Jonathan Cape, 1946).

  16 Edward Allworth (ed.), Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), p. 244.

  17 Fitzroy Maclean, A Person from England, and Other Travellers (London: Jonathan Cape, 1958).

  18 Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923, rev. edn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964), p. 258.

  19 Maclean, A Person from England, pp. 357–8; Fitzroy Maclean, To the Back of Beyond (London: Jonathan Cape, 1974), pp. 95–6; Olaf Caroe, Soviet Empire: The Turks of Central Asia and Stalinism, 2nd edn (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1967), pp. 24–125.

  20 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 2: July 1919–March 1921 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), pp. 1165–6.

  CHAPTER 57

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 2: July 1919–March 1921 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 938.

  2 Ibid., p. 1249.

  3 Ibid., p. 1261.

  4 Ibid., p. 1267.

  5 Ibid., p. 1269.

  6 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), p. 528.

  7 Ibid., p. 523.

  8 Ibid., p. 524.

  9 Ibid., p. 527.

  10 Ibid.

  11 The Letters of T. E. Lawrence, ed. by David Garnett (London: Jonathan Cape, 1938), p. 316.

  12 Lowell Thomas, With Lawrence in Arabia (New York and London: Century, 1924), p. 308.

  13 Ibid., p. 131.

  14 Ibid., p. 407.

  15 John E. Mack, A Prince of Our Disorder: The Life of T. E. Lawrence (Boston: Little, Brown, 1976), p. 276.

  16 Desmond Stewart, T. E. Lawrence (New York and London: Harper & Row, 1977); Mack, A Prince of Our Disorder; Phillip Knightley and Colin Simpson, The Secret Lives of Lawrence of Arabia (London: Thomas Nelson, 1969).

  17 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 841.

  18 Ibid., p. 1076.

  19 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 638.

  20 Ibid., p. 894.

  21 Ibid., p. 545.

  22 Ibid., p. 511.

  23 Ibid., p. 592.

  24 Ibid., p. 509.

  25 Ibid., p. 217.

  26 Ibid.

  27 Letters of T. E. Lawrence, p. 291.

  28 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 1334.

  29 Ibid., p. 1367.

  30 Ibid., p. 1377.

  31 Ibid., p. 1405.

  32 H. V. F. Winstone, Gertrude Bell (London: Jonathan Cape, 1978), p. 235.

  33 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 1391.

  34 Ibid., p. 1383.

  35 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 538.

  36 Ibid., pp. 552–3.

  37 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, pp. 1407–8.

  38 Ibid., p. 1408.

  39 Ibid., p. 1413.

  40 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 553.

  41 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 404.

  42
Ibid., p. 1428.

  43 Ibid., p. 1432.

  44 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 516.

  45 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 1414.

  46 Aaron S. Klieman, Foundations of British Policy in the Arab World: The Cairo Conference of 1921 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), p. 140.

  47 Ibid., p. 145.

  48 Ibid., p. 146.

  49 Ibid., p. 156.

  50 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 1966.

  51 Ibid., p. 1967.

  52 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 817.

  53 Ibid.

  54 Ibid., p. 818.

  55 Ibid.

  56 Winstone, Gertrude Bell, pp. 242–3.

  57 Thomas Hoving, Tutankhamun: The Untold Story (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), pp. 89 et seq.

  58 T. E. Lawrence to His Biographer, Liddell Hart (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1938), p. 131.

  59 Klieman, Foundations of British Policy, p. 215.

  60 Ibid., p. 216.

  61 Ibid., p. 217.

  62 Ibid., p. 223.

  63 Ibid., p. 217.

  64 Mack, A Prince of Our Disorder, p. 306.

  65 Klieman, Foundations of British Policy, p. 285–8.

  66 Ibid., p. 229.

  67 Ibid., p. 233.

  CHAPTER 58

  1 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. C. D. Brunton Papers.

  2 Reported in The Times, 2 September 1921.

  3 Vladimir Jabotinsky, The Story of the Jewish Legion, trans. by Samuel Katz (New York: Bernard Ackerman, 1945), pp. 168–9.

  4 Elie Kedourie, The Chatham House Version and Other Middle Eastern Studies, new edn (Hanover and London: University Press of New England, 1984), ch. 4.

  5 Ibid., p. 65.

  6 Ibid.

  7 Ibid.

  8 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 2: July 1919–March 1921 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 1420.

  9 Ibid., p. 1028, n. 1.

  10 Ibid., Part 3: April 1921–November 1922, p. 1559.

  11 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), p. 597.

  12 Ibid., p. 629.

  13 Ibid., p. 630.

  14 Ibid.

  15 Kenneth W. Stein, The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), p. 67.

  16 Ibid., p. 37.

  17 Ibid., p. 65.

  18 Ibid., p. 37.

  19 Ibid., p. 67.

  20 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, pp. 655–6.

  21 Ibid., p. 628.

  22 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 1647.

  23 Ibid., p. 1659.

  24 Ibid., n. 1.

  25 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 624.

  26 Ibid., pp. 652–3.

  27 Ibid.

  28 Ibid., p. 659.

  29 Ibid.

  30 Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion and the Palestinian Arabs (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 5, 6, 37, 47–55, 75–81.

  31 Ibid., chs 5, 6, and 7.

  32 Ibid.

  33 Ibid., pp. 55–6; Joseph B. Schechtman, Fighter and Prophet: The Vladimir Jabotinsky Story, the Last Years (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1961), p. 324.

  34 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 2125.

  CHAPTER 59

  1 Walter Goerlitz, History of the German General Staff: 1657–1945, trans. by Brian Battershaw (New York: Praeger, 1953), pp. 231. et seq.

  2 Salahi Ramsdan Sonyel, Turkish Diplomacy, 1918–1923: Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish National Movement (London and Beverly Hills: SAGE Publications, 1975), p. 83.

  3 Ibid., p. 87.

  4 Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), p. 33.

  5 Ibid.

  6 Ibid., p. 43.

  7 William Stivers, Supremacy and Oil: Iraq, Turkey, and the Anglo-American World Order, 1918–1930 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1982), p. 111.

  8 Ibid., pp. 195–9.

  9 Laurence Evans, United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914–1924 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), p. 300.

  10 Ibid., p. 303.

  11 H. V. F. Winstone, The Illicit Adventure (London: Jonathan Cape, 1982), p. 348.

  12 Stivers, Supremacy and Oil, p. 127.

  13 Ibid., p. 123, n. 36.

  14 Ibid., p. 126.

  15 Ibid., p. 89.

  16 Ibid., p. 90.

  17 Sonyel, Turkish Diplomacy, p. 138.

  18 Ibid., p. 139; Roderic H. Davison, “Turkish Diplomacy from Mudros to Lausanne,” in Gordon A. Craig and Felix Gilbert (eds), The Diplomats, 1919–1939 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), p. 193.

  19 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 3: April 1921–November 1922 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 1656.

  20 Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 135.

  21 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, pp. 1656–1657.

  CHAPTER 60

  1 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 2: 1919–1931 (London: Collins, 1972), p. 199.

  2 Arnold J. Toynbee, The Western Question in Greece and Turkey, reprint of 2nd edn (New York: Howard Fertig, 1970), p. 247.

  3 Michael Llewellyn Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor 1919–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1973), p. 203.

  4 Ibid., p. 226.

  5 Ibid.

  6 Lord Kinross, Ataturk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal, Father of Modern Turkey (New York: William Morrow, 1965), p. 307.

  7 Ibid., p. 309.

  8 Smith, Ionian Vision, pp. 228–9.

  9 Ibid., p. 237.

  10 Ibid., p. 271.

  11 Ibid., p. 273.

  12 Salahi Ramsdan Sonyel, Turkish Diplomacy 1918–1923: Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish National Movement (London and Beverly Hills: SAGE Publications, 1975), pp. 172–3.

  13 Lord Riddell’s Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference and after: 1918–1923 (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934), p. 385.

  14 Smith, Ionian Vision, p. 303.

  15 Toynbee, The Western Question, p. 152.

  16 Smith, Ionian Vision, p. 232.

  17 Toynbee, The Western Question, pp. 315–17.

  18 Marjorie Housepian, Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of a City (London: Faber, 1972), p. 166.

  19 Kinross, Ataturk, p. 270; Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 363.

  20 William White (ed.), By-Line: Ernest Hemingway (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1967), p. 60.

  21 Laurence Evans, United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914–1924 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), pp. 374–5.

  22 Ibid., p. 375.

  23 Ibid., p. 344.

  24 Ibid., pp. 373–4.

  25 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 3: April 1921–November 1922 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 1980.

  26 Ibid.

  27 Ibid., p. 1988.

  28 W. K. Hancock, Smuts: The Fields of Fire, 1919–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 4–5.

  29 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, pp. 1993–5.

  30 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), p. 829.

  31 Ibid., p. 834.

  32 John Campbell, F. E. Smith: First Earl of Birkenhead (London: Jonathan Cape, 1983), p. 606.

  33 Smuts to Bonar Law. Hancock, Smuts, p. 130.

  34 Campbell, F. E. Smith, p. 607.

  35 Roskill, Hankey, Vol. 2, p. 293.

  36 Robert Blake, “Baldwin and the Right,” in The Baldwin Age, ed. by John Raymond (London: Ey
re & Spottiswoode, 1960), pp. 37, 41.

  37 Lord Beaverbrook, The Decline and Fall of Lloyd George: And Great Was the Fall Thereof (London: Collins, 1963), p. 171.

  38 Riddell, Intimate Diary, pp. 388–9.

  39 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, p. 871.

  40 Smith, Ionian Vision, pp. 326–8.

  41 Robert Blake, The Unknown Prime Minister: The Life and Times of Andrew Bonar Law 1858–1923 (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1955), pp. 447–8.

  42 Minister of Agriculture, Arthur S. D. Griffith-Boscawen, quoted in Kenneth O. Morgan, Consensus and Disunity: The Lloyd George Coalition Government 1918–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), p. 325.

  43 A. J. P. Taylor, Beaverbrook (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972), p. 197.

  44 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 2105.

  45 Ibid., p. 2122.

  46 Ibid., p. 2125.

  47 Lloyd George, Memoirs, p. 872.

  CHAPTER 61

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), p. 892.

  2 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 5, Part 1: The Exchequer Years, 1922–1929 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981), p. 236.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY

  This is a bibliography of my sources other than the archives and collections of private and official papers indicated in the Acknowledgments. It consists of publications only, and is limited to those that I used: the published writings that I consulted in the course, and specifically for the purpose, of writing this book. Of the titles that I list, therefore, fully half appear in the Notes; and of those that do not, many did appear in the Notes to earlier drafts of my manuscript.

  It is not a comprehensive bibliography of the published literature on my subject, the creation of the modern Middle East (1914–1922) seen in the context of European world politics (1789–1922). Such a bibliography, if assembled properly, could well constitute a book in itself. It would include a multitude of germane and valuable works, some of which I have read and others not, that do not appear in the following list because I did not have occasion to examine or reexamine them in working on A Peace to End All Peace.

  Abd Allah ibn Hussein, Memoirs of King Abdullah of Transjordan, ed. by Philip P. Graves (London: Jonathan Cape, 1950).

  ______, My Memoirs Completed “Al Takmilah,” trans. by Harold W. Glidden (London and New York: Longman, 1978).

  Abdullah, Muhammad Morsy, The United Arab Emirates: A Modern History (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1978).