A Peace to End all Peace

by David Fromkin

Dulles, Allen

  Dunsterville, Major-General L. C.

  Eastern Committee

  Egypt/Cairo; see also Cairo Conference

  El Arish

  Eliot, George

  Emir of Mecca see Hussein ibn Ali

  Enver Pasha: and 1908 revolt; British information about his ethnic origins incorrect; as a Young Turk triumvir; a nationalist without a nation; seeks German alliance; personally known to Churchill; negotiates German alliance; offers Osman to Germany; invites sending of Goeben and Breslau to Constantinople; pushes for Turkish entry into the war on Germany’s side; and al-Masri; becomes Turkey’s “vice-generalissimo” leads Caucasus campaign; failings as War Minister; turns over command at the Dardanelles to Liman; and British capitulation at Kut; wary of German influence; and the Armenian Massacres; and Djemal’s offer to the Allies; his political position in 1917; secret talks with Lloyd George’s emissary; his new offensive against Russia; al-Masri offers to overthrow; campaigns in Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan; his views in 1918; Cabinet colleagues turn against and blame; flees Constantinople; War Office still controlled by his followers; rivalry with Kemal; blamed by British for Middle East disorders; dealings with Germany and Bolshevik Russia; Bukhara campaign; death of

  Enzeli (Persia): Soviet Russian attack on the Caspian port of

  Faruqi, Muhammed Sharif al-

  Fatat, al-

  Feisal, son of Hussein of Mecca, later King of Syria, and later still, King of Iraq: deputy from Jeddah in the Ottoman Parliament; mission to Constantinople and Damascus (1915); and al-Faruqi; believes 100,000 men will join Hejaz revolt (June 1916); should be field commander of the Hejaz revolt, says Lawrence; informed of British plans to recreate a Jewish homeland in Palestine (1917); campaigns in Arabia 309 and Transjordanian Palestine; expresses sympathy for Jews and Zionism; and Hussein; and the administration of liberated Syria; and the Damascus campaign; his dinner conversation with Allenby; importance of his contribution to Allenby’s campaigns deliberately exaggerated by Lloyd George; and the peace negotiations; and the Arab leadership of independent Syria; and France; caught between the Syrian General Congress and the French; proclaimed King of Greater Syria; defeated, deposed, and exiled by the French; and Iraq disorders; and Lowell Thomas; and Churchill’s plan to make him ruler of Iraq; his coronation; Churchill fears Turks, aided by France, will attack; Churchill and colleagues come to regard as “treacherous”

  Fisher, John Arbuthnotst Baron

  Fitzgerald, F. Scott: quoted

  FitzGerald, Lieutenant-Colonel Oswald

  FitzMaurice, Gerald

  Flandin, Pierre-Etienne

  Foch, Marshal Ferdinand

  Fourteen Points see under Wilson, Woodrow

  France see specific headings

  Franchet d’Esperey, Louis-Felix-François

  Francis Ferdinand, Archduke

  Frankfurter, Felix

  Franklin-Bouillon, Henri

  Freemasonry

  Frunze, Mikhail

  Fuad, Ahmed, Sultan, and later King, of Egypt

  Gallipoli

  Gaster, Rabbi Dr Moses

  Gauchet, Vice-Admiral Dominique M.

  Gaza

  George II, King of Greece

  George V, King

  Georgia (Russia)

  German East Africa

  Germany see specific headings

  Gladstone, William Ewart

  Glubb, John Bagot

  Goeben (ship)

  Goltz, Field Marshal Colman von der

  Gorchakov, Prince Alexander Mikhailovich

  Gordon, General Charles George

  Gorky, Maxim

  Gounaris, Demetrios

  Gouraud, General Henri

  Graham, Sir Ronald

  Granville Browne, Edward

  Graves, Philip

  Graves, Robert

  Great Game in Asia, the: its history

  Greek-Turkish war

  Greenberg, Leopold

  Greenmantle (Buchan)

  Grey, Sir Edward, later 1st Viscount Grey of Falloden

  Gulf see Persian Gulf

  Habsburg Empire see Austria-Hungary

  Hagana

  Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land (1907)

  Haig, Field Marshal Sir Douglas

  Halil Bey

  Halim, Prince Said, Grand Vizier

  Hall, Captain William Reginald

  Hama see “Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo”

  Hamilton, General Sir Ian

  Hankey, Maurice

  Harding, Warren Gamaliel

  Hardinge of Penshurstst Baron (Sir Charles Hardinge)

  Harvard University

  Hashem, House of

  Hashemites

  Hashimi, Yasin al-

  Hejaz, the

  Helphand, Alexander Israel (“Parvus”)

  Hemingway, Ernest

  Henderson, Arthur

  Herbert, Aubrey

  Hercegovina: annexation by Austria-Hungary

  Herzl, Theodore

  Hess, Moses

  Hindenburg, Paul von

  Hirtzel, Sir Arthur

  Hogarth, Lieutenant-Commander David G.

  Hogarth message (1918)

  Homs see “Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo”

  Home, Sir Robert

  House, Edward Mandell; of Allied plane to partition the Middle East, remarks “They are making it a breeding ground for future war”

  Hughes, Charles Evans

  Hughes, William

  Hungary

  see also Austria-Hungary

  Hussein ibn Ali, Sherif and Emir of Mecca, later King of the Hejaz: seen as a possible future Caliph by Kitchener and Kitchener’s aides; through Abdullah, seeks Britain’s support (pre-1914) against the Young Turks; Kitchener corresponds with (autumn 1914); India objects to Kitchener’s dealings with; his title, his family, and his past history; the Turks appoint him Emir (1908); his political position (1908—15); discovers (1915) Young Turk plan to depose him; pushed by the Young Turk plan into conflict with the Ottoman Empire, seeks support from Arab secret societies; at urging of secret societies, demands British support for Arab independence under his kingship in letter to McMahon; his correspondence with McMahon; and the al-Faruqi episode; his importance in the war, according to Sykes; his unimportance, according to the French; his interests in Palestine recognized by the Sykes-Picot Agreement; revolts against the Ottoman Empire; in constant communication with the Young Turks with a view to changing sides in the war; proclaims himself “King of the Arabs” Sykes and Picot visit him to roughly outline the terms of the secret Sykes-Picot-Sazanov Agreement; informed by British government of its plan to re-create a Jewish homeland in Palestine; and Sykes’s draft of the proclamation to the people of Baghdad; and the design of his flag; his conflict with Ibn Saud; thinks of proclaiming himself Caliph; his importance reevaluated by British officials; complains that Feisal has betrayed him; and the taking of Damascus; and the administration of Syria; his position (1919); the Arab Bureau’s old belief in him as leader of an Arab confederation denounced in The Times; possible annexation of Transjordan by; refuses to sign treaty with Britain (1921)

  Husseini, Amin al-, Grand Muffi of Jerusalem

  Husseini, Musa Kazim Pasha al-

  Husseini family, al-

  Ibn Rashid

  Ibn Saud, Abdul Aziz, Emir of Nejd, later King of Saudi Arabia

  Idrisi, Seyyid Mohammed al-

  Ikhwan see Brethren

  Imperial War Conference (Cabinet)

  India see specific headings

  India Office

  Inquiry, the (US postwar plans)

  Iran see also Persia/Persian Empire

  Iraq

  see also Mesopotamia

  Ironside, Major-General Edmund

  Isaacs, Rufusst Marquis of Reading

  Islamic Revolutionary League

  Ismet Pasha, General (Inönü)

  Israel

  Italy

&n
bsp; Izzet Pasha, Field Marshal Ahmet, Grand Vizier

  Jabotinsky, Vladimir

  Jackson, Admiral Sir Henry

  Japan

  Jeddah

  Jellicoe, Admiral Sir John

  Jerusalem

  Jewish Chronicle

  Jewish Legion

  Jewish Peril, The (Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion)

  Jordan

  Journal des Débats, Le

  Joyce, Lieutenant-Colonel Pierce Charles

  Justice, La

  Kadjar dynasty (Persia)

  Kamenev, Lev

  Karasu, Emmanuel (Emmanuel Carasso)

  Kedourie, Professor Elie

  Kemal, Mustapha: as a Turkish commander at Gallipoli; appointed Inspector General of the Ninth Army, embarks on a voyage to the interior (1919); disobeys Sultan’s order to return and rallies Turks of Anatolia around a nationalist program in revolt against the Allies; an analysis of the groups supporting his revolt; defeats French at Marash; reportedly preparing to ally with Arabs of Damascus; moves headquarters to Angora (Ankara) and declares National Pact; repeatedly defeats French (1920); establishes government in Angora, and is elected president of the Grand National Assembly; sends mission to Moscow; his rivalry with Enver, misunderstood by British, but understood by Russians; an enemy of Russian communism; and Stalin; signs treaty with, and receives military aid from, Russia; attacks British near Constantinople; as a threat to the Treaty of Sèvres; beginnings of war with Greece; increasingly draws France and Italy to his side; and the Arab-French conflict in Syria; blamed by British for Middle East disorders; and Armenia; and Afghanistan; and Soviet alliance structure; realism of his demands; gains support of Italy; reaches accord with France; and the Greek war; and the Chanak crisis; and the armistice of Mudanya 551 and peace talks at Lausanne

  Kerensky, Alexander

  Kerr, Philip

  Keynes, John Maynard

  Khedive of Egypt, the see Abbas II

  Khiva

  Khurma

  Kim (Kipling)

  King, Henry

  King-Crane Commission

  Kipling, Rudyard

  Kitchener of Khartoumst Earl of (Horatio Herbert Kitchener): his role in creating the modern Middle East; warned by Deedes of state of affairs in Turkey; meets with Churchill as war crisis mounts (July 1914); appointed War Minister; his character, habits, and military career; his views on the World War and his strategy for winning it; he and his aides regarded as experts on the Middle East; their bias; his aides and their views; FitzGerald writes and speaks for him; his misunderstanding of Islam and his proposal of an Arab caliphate; pre-1914 dealings with Abdullah; dealings with Hussein (1914); his differences with India; and the role of the Middle East in the war; and the Dardanelles expedition; his plans for the postwar Middle East; described by Lloyd George as a lighthouse; makes Sykes his representative; and the de Bunsen committee; and the Gallipoli campaign; loss of Cabinet support; powers reduced; and Hussein’s revolt; and creation of the Arab Bureau; and the Sykes-Picot Agreement; mission to Russia; death of; thought Palestine of little value; and Sykes; and Wahhabi religious revival; and Arab nationalism

  Kressenstein, Kress von

  Kun, Bela

  Kurdistan

  Kurds

  Kut, siege of

  Kuwait

  Labor Zionist movement

  Lambert, George

  Lansdowneth Marquis of (Henry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice)

  Lansing, Robert

  Last Crusade, The (Thomas)

  Lawrence, T. E. (Lawrence of Arabia)

  Leachman, Colonel Gerald

  League of Nations; and Middle Eastern Mandates

  Lebanon

  Lenin, V. I. (Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov)

  Lepsius, Pastor Johannus

  Libya

  Liman von Sanders, General Otto

  Limpus, Rear-Admiral Sir Arthur H.

  Lippmann, Walter

  Lloyd, George

  Lloyd George, David: his role in creation of the modern Middle East; political sponsor of Winston Churchill; later blames Churchill for the war with Turkey; “keen for Balkan confederation” Kitchener feels out of place with; low opinion of Cairo Intelligence; his war strategy; and Dardanelles campaign; describes Kitchener; says none of the Great Powers covets Arabia; and Gallipoli campaign; along with Bonar Law, tells Asquith to form a Coalition government; claims he fought to get high office for Churchill; blamed by Churchill; blames Churchill for the war and the Dardanelles campaign; becomes Minister of Munitions; critical of Kitchener; meets Sykes; moves away from Radicalism and Liberals and closer to Tories; becomes War Minister; overthrows Asquith and becomes Prime Minister; his presidential style of government; his focus on the Middle East; influence of Milner on; seeks postwar British hegemony in the Middle East; believes the Ottoman Empire brought about Russia’s collapse; flirts with notion of partitioning Russia; secret negotiations with Turkey; and Woodrow Wilson; and Zionism and the Balfour Declaration; and the Palestine campaign; and the Mesopotamian campaign; opposes Sykes-Picot Agreement; and Amery’s strategy; and negotiations for Ottoman surrender; aims to acquire Palestine and Mosul, and to exclude France from Syria; meets with Clemenceau, who agrees to give him Palestine and Mosul (December 1918); and the 1918 elections; claims Britain entitled to dominant role in postwar Middle East; abandons his program of domestic reforms in face of economic collapse; and the Peace Conference; abandons Syria to France; and the Treaty of Sèvres; responds to anti-Zionism of British administration in Palestine by appointing Samuel High Commissioner; and Mosul; and Persia; blames Curzon for Persian involvement; and Bolshevik Russia; his “vendetta against the Turks” criticized by Churchill; appoints Churchill Colonial Secretary; and Transjordan; opposes withdrawal from Iraq; tells Churchill what he and Balfour intended the Balfour Declaration to mean; his Greek-Turkish policies lose him support of former allies; and the Greek-Turkish war; and the Chanak crisis; his fall from power; his effect on the Middle East

  Lloyd George, Roberts & Co.: represents Dr Herzl and the Zionist movement

  London Conference (1920)

  London Conference (1921)

  London, Treaty of (1915): Italy’s agreement to join the Allies

  Louis of Battenberg, Prince

  Lowther, Sir Gerald

  Ludendorff, Erich

  Luxemburg, Rosa

  Lvov, Prince G. E.

  Macdonogh, G. M. W.

  Macedonia: background for flourishing of Young Turkey views

  McKenna, Reginald

  Mackenzie, Compton

  Mackinder, Sir Halford

  McMahon, Sir Henry

  McMahon-Hussein correspondence (1915—16)

  Mahan, Alfred Thayer: invents the descriptive phrase “the Middle East”

  Mahdi, the: significance of his title

  Malcolm, James

  Malleson, Major-General Wilfred

  Mallet, Sir Louis

  Manchester Guardian

  Man-eaters of Tsavo, The (Patterson)

  Marlboroughth Duke of (Charles Richard John Spencer-Churchill)

  Marne, First Battle of

  Maronites

  Mason, A. E. W.

  Masri, Aziz Ali al-

  Masterson Smith, Sir James

  Masurian lakes, Battle of

  Maude, Major-General Stanley

  Maxwell, General Sir John

  Mazzini, Giuseppe

  Mecca

  Medina

  Megiddo, Battle of

  Mehmed V, Sultan

  Mehmed VI, Sultan

  Meinertzhagen, Colonel Richard

  Mesopotamia (Iraq)

  Mesopotamia Administration Committee

  Metaxas, Ioannis

  Methodist Episcopal Church

  Mexico: and Zimmerman telegram

  Michael, Grand Duke of Russia: refuses the throne

  Millerand, Alexander

  Milne, General George Francis

  Milner, Alfred, Lord
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br />   Mirghani, Sir Sayyid Ali al-

  Mond, Alfred

  Montagu, Edwin

  Montenegro

  Moore, Sir Archibald

  Morgan, J. P.

  Morgenthau, Henry

  Mosul

  Mubarak, Sheik of Kuwait

  Mudros, Armistice of

  Murray, General Sir Archibald

  Mussolini, Benito

  Naqib of Baghdad, the (Sir Sayid Abdul Rachman)

  National Pact, the (Turkish)

  Navarino, Battle of (1827)

  Newcombe, Lieutenant-Colonel Stewart F.

  Newfoundland

  New Republic

  New Zealand

  Nicholas II, Czar

  Nicolson, Sir Arthur

  Nilus, Sergei

  Nixon, Sir John

  Norris, Captain David T.

  Northcliffest Viscount (Alfred Harmsworth)

  Nuri el-Sa’id

  O’Beirne, Hugh

  “On the Quai at Smyrna” (Hemingway)

  Orlando, Emanuele

  Ormsby-Gore, William

  Other Club

  Ottoman Armyrd

  Ottoman Armyth

  Ottoman Armyth

  Ottoman Parliament

  Painlevé, Paul

  Paléologue, Maurice

  Palestine

  Pallavicini, Johann Margrave von

  Palmerstonrd Viscount (Henry John Temple)

  Pan-Islamic Propaganda Bureau

  Pan-Turanian Movement

  Paris Peace Conference see Peace Conference

  Parker, Colonel Alfred

  Parvus see Helphand, Alexander Israel

  Patterson, Lieutenant-Colonel John Henry

  Paul I, Czar

  Peace Conference (1919)

  Peake, Colonel F. G.

  Persia and the Persian Question (Curzon)

  Persia/Persian Empire see also Iran

  Persian Gulf

  Peshawar: planned Indian nationalist uprising in

  Picot, François Georges see also Sykes-Picot-Sazanov Agreement

  Pinsker, Leo

  Pitt, William (the Younger)

  Poincaré, Raymond

  Poland

  Popolo d’Italia

  Porte see Sublime Porte

  Princeton University

  Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion (The Jewish Peril)

  Radek, Karl

  Rapallo, Treaty of (1922)

  Rashid, House of

  Raslovleff, Michael

  Rathenau, Walter

  Rawalpindi, Treaty of (1919)