New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway
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11 Instead of cultural and chronological, Stanley Diamond uses prospective and retrospective to name two types of primitivism. His study is an excellent synthesis of past work and thought as well as speculation for the future.
12 See my Hemingway on Love (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965, rpt. New York: Haskell House, 1973), and (the most recent relevant essay) Kim Moreland, "Hemingway’s Medievalist Impulse: Its Effect on the Presentation of Women and War in The Sun Also Rises," Hemingway Review 6, no. 1 (1986): 30–41.
Baker, Carlos. Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s, 1969).
Brasch, James D., and Joseph Sigman. Hemingway’s Library: A Composite Record (New York: Garland, 1981).
Cowley, Malcolm. “Introduction.” Hemingway (New York: Viking Press, 1944).
Diamond, Stanley. In Search of the Primitive: A Critique of Civilization (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1974).
Fiedler, Leslie. The Return of the Vanishing American (New York: Stein and Day, 1968).
Griffin, Peter. Along with Youth: Hemingway, The Early Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
Hemingway, Ernest. Death in the Afternoon (New York: Scribner’s, 1932).
————. 88 Poems, ed. Nicholas Gerogiannis (New York: Harcourt Brace & Jovanovich, 1979).
————. For Whom the Bell Tolls (New York: Scribner’s, 1940).
————. Letter to Robert M. Brown (July 22, 1956). Humanities Research Center, University of Texas, Austin.
————. The Nick Adams Stories (New York: Scribner’s, 1972).
————. Selected Letters, 1917–1961, ed. Carlos Baker (New York: Scribner’s, 1981).
————. The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway (New York: Scribner’s, 1938).
————. The Sun Also Rises. New York: Scribner’s, 1926.
————. The Torrents of Spring. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966 and 1926; New York: Scribner’s, 1972.
Hemingway, Leicester. My Brother, Ernest Hemingway. Cleveland: World, 1962.
Hemingway, Mary Welsh. How it Was. New York: Knopf, 1976.
Lewis, Robert W. Hemingway on Love. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1963; reprint New York: Haskell House, 1973.
Lewis, Wyndham. “Ernest Hemingway: The ‘Dumb Ox.’” Men Without Art. London: Cassell, 1934.
————. Paleface: The Philosophy of the “Melting Pot.” London: Chatto and Windus, 1929.
Meyers, Jeffrey. Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Harper & Row, 1985.
Montgomery, Constance Cappel. Hemingway in Michigan. New York: Fleet, 1966.
Moreland, Kim. “Hemingway’s Medievalist Impulse: Its Effect on the Presentation of Women and War in The Sun Also Rises.” The Hemingway Review 6, no. 1 (1986): 30–41.
Paul, Sherman. In Search of the Primitive: Rereading David Antin, Jerome Rothenberg, and Gary Snyder. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986.
Plimpton, George, ed. “Hemingway.” Writers at Work: The “Paris Review” Interviews. Second series. New York: Viking Press, 1965.
Reynolds, Michael. Hemingway’s Reading, 1910–1940: An Inventory. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981.
————. The Young Hemingway. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.
Ross, Lillian. Portrait of Hemingway. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1961.
Smith, Paul. “The Tenth Indian and the Thing Left Out.” Ernest Hemingway: The Writer in Context, ed. James Nagel. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. Some other works on Hemingway’s Indians and primitivism include the following:
Burnham, Tom. “Primitivism and Masculinity in the Work of Ernest Hemingway.” Modern Fiction Studies 1 (August 1955): 20–24.
Hassan, Ihab. Radical Innocence: Studies in the Contemporary American Novel. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1961.
Lewis, Robert W. “Hemingway.” The Indian Historian 4 (Summer 1971): 56.
Love, Glen. “Hemingway’s Indian Virtues: An Ecological Reconsideration.” Western American Literature 22, no. 1 (1987): 201–13.
McClellan, David. “The Battle of the Little Big Horn in Hemingway’s Later Fiction.” Fitzgerald/Hemingway Annual 1976, ed. Matthew J. Bruccoli. Englewood, Colo.: Information Handling Services, 1978. Pp. 245–48.
St. John, Donald. “Hemingway and Prudence.” Connecticut Review 5 (April 1972): 78–84.
Schulz, Franz. Der nordamerikanische Indianer und seine Welt in den Werken von Ernest Hemingway und Oliver Lafarge. Munich, Germany: Max Huber Verlag, 1964.
Schiers, Elaine. Untitled review. The Indian Historian 4 (Spring 1971): 54, 66.
Wayne Kvam, “Hemingway’s ‘Banal Story’”
1 Ernest Hemingway, "Banal Story," The Little Review 12, no. 1 (Spring-Summer 1926): 22"23.
2 Hemingway, "Banal Story," Men Without Women (New York: Scribner’s, 1927), pp. 214"17.
3 Joseph Defalco, The Hero in Hemingway’s Short Stories (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), p. 95.
4 Nicholas Joost, Ernest Hemingway and the Little Magazines (Barre, Mass.: Barre Publishers, 1968), pp. 150–51.
5 Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s, 1969), p. 184.
6 Henry G. Leach, My Last Seventy Years (New York: Bookman Associates, 1956), pp. 175–77.
7 Ibid., p. 180.
8 Leach, "An Introduction by the Editor," Forum 73 (March 1925). The editor’s introduction usually appeared on the inside of the unnumbered cover page for each issue.
9 Forum 73 (May 1925).
10 Forum 74 (September 1925). Henry P. Fairchild’s "The Land-Hunger Urge to War," the first article in the series "War or Peace?" also appeared in this issue.
11 Forum 73 (May 1925). Canada and Canadians were favorite topics of the editor’s, as the following statement from his autobiography illustrates: "Canada, dear Canada! My Canadian friends occupy a place in my affections beside the Scandinavian. The average Canadian is clear-headed, direct, objective, practical, and helpful." Turning to economic development, Leach added, "The Canadian dollar has a way of becoming more valuable than even the American dollar. Canada is today the Promised Land." My Last Seventy Years, p. 136.
12 See, for example, J. B. S. Haldane, "Biology Moulding the Future," Forum 73 (March 1925): 331–41; H. F. Osborn, "Credo of a Naturalist," Forum 73 (April 1925): 486; Francis Crookshank, "The Threefold Origin of Man," Forum 73 (May 1925): 690–97; Osborn, "The Earth Speaks to Bryan," Forum 73 (June 1925): 796–803; William J. Bryan, "Mr. Bryan Speaks to Darwin," Forum 74 (August 1925): 322–24; E. E. Free, "The Origin of Life," Forum 74 (October 1925): 552–60.
13 Forum 73 (February 1925).
14 Forum 73 (April 1925).
15 Forum 73 (January 1925).
16 Forum 73 (April 1925).
17 Laird S. Goldsborough, "Big Men—Or Cultured?" Forum 73 (February 1925): 209–14.
18 Forum 74 (October 1925): xiii.
19 Arthur H. Gibbs, "Soundings," Forum 72 (December 1924): 838.
20 Forum 72 (December 1924).
21 Roy Dibble, "In the Wicked Old Puritan Days," Forum 75 (April 1926): 518–24.
22 Forum 74 (August 1925).
23 Forum 73 (June 1925).
24 "Picasso’s Achievement," Forum 73 (June 1925): 760–75.
25 "Picasso’s Failure," Forum 73 (June 1925): 776–83.
26 "Pure Art? Or ‘Pure Nonsense’?" Forum 74 (July 1925): 146.
27 "Tramps and Hoboes," Forum 74 (August 1925): 227–37.
28 Forum 72 (December 1924).
29 Forum 73 (January 1925).
30 Forum 73 (May 1925).
31 Forum 72 (December 1924).
32 Forum 74 (August 1925).
33 "To the Mayas," Forum 74 (August 1925): 161.
34 Herbert Spinden, "The Answer of Ancient America," Forum 74 (August 1925): 162–71.
35 Hemingway, Death in the Afternoon (New York: Scribner’s, 1932), p. 122.
36 Ibid., pp. 77–83.
> 37 Hemingway, Green Hills of Africa (New York: Scribner’s, 1935), p. 295.
38 Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls (New York: Scribner’s 1940), pp. 312–13.
39 Hemingway, Death in the Afternoon, p. 95.
40 Ibid., p. 275.
41 Ibid., p. 205.
42 Charles Fenton, The Apprenticeship of Ernest Hemingway (1954; reprint New York: Mentor, 1961), p. 88.
George Monteiro, “‘This Is My Pal Bugs’: Ernest Hemingway’s ‘The Battler’“
1 In Our Time (New York: Scribner’s, n.d.), pp. 77–78. All subsequent quotations from "The Battler" are from this text and are so indicated by page references within the body of the paper.
2 See, particularly, Philip Young, Ernest Hemingway (New York: Rinehart, 1952), pp. 8–11, 205–7; William B. Bache, "Hemingway’s ‘The Battler,’" Explicator (October 1954): 13, item 4; Joseph DeFalco, The Hero in Hemingway’s Short Stories (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), pp. 71–81; Richard B. Hovey, Hemingway: The Inward Terrain (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968), p. 20; Joseph M. Flora, Hemingway’s Nick Adams (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), pp. 83–104; and Nicholas Gerogiannis, "Nick Adams on the Road: ‘The Battler’ as Hemingway’s Man on the Hill," Critical Essays on Ernest Hemingway’s "In Our Time," ed. Michael S. Reynolds (Boston: Hall, 1983), pp. 176–88.
3 Ernest Hemingway, Selected Letters 1917–1961, ed. Carlos Baker (New York: Scribner’s, 1981), p. 157.
4 Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s, 1969), p. 141.
5 Philip Young argues for the relationship between Mark Twain’s Huck and Jim as a precedent for Ad and Bugs, and in passing he mentions Ishmael and Queequeg as a second possibility (pp. 205–7). In both cases, however, there is a lack that makes the difference: there is no third person participant-observer, who, in Hemingway’s story, is the young Nick Adams and, in Melville’s, the "innocent" Benito Cereno.
6 Herman Melville, "Benito Cereno," A Benito Cereno Handbook, ed. Seymour L. Gross (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1965), p. 38. All subsequent quotations from Melville’s story are from this text and are so indicated by page references within the body of this essay.
Scott Donaldson, “Preparing for the End: Hemingway’s Revisions of ‘A Canary for One’”
1 This objection has been raised by a number of my students over the years, as well as by critics. Among the few extended discussions of "A Canary for One" are: Martin Dolch, John V. Hagopian, and W. Gordon Cunliffe, "A Canary for One," Insight I: Analyses of American Literature, ed. John V. Hagopian and Martin Dolch (Frankfurt-am-Main: Hirschgraben, 1962), pp. 96–99; Joseph DeFalco, The Hero in Hemingway’s Short Stories (Pittsburgh; University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), pp. 174–76; and Julian Smith, "‘A Canary for One’" Hemingway in the Wasteland," Studies in Short Fiction 5 (1968): 355–61.
2 Smith, "Canary," p. 355.
3 The three drafts are numbered Ms-307, Ms-308, and Ms.-309 in the finding aid to the Hemingway collection at the Kennedy Library. I am indebted to Jo August and William Johnson of the library for their assistance.
4 A possibility Smith proposed in yet another essay: "Hemingway and the Thing Left Out," Journal of Modern Literature 1 (1971): 169–82.
5 George Plimpton, interview of Ernest Hemingway, Writers at Work, second series (New York: Viking Press, 1965), p. 230.
6 Smith, "Canary," pp. 358–60.
7 Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s, 1969), pp. 177, 592–93.
8 See, among others, the attack on "the rich" in the concluding chapter of A Moveable Feast and self-recriminations of Thomas Hudson in Islands in the Stream.
9 Baker, Ernest Hemingway, p. 177.
10 Michael S. Reynolds, Hemingway’s First War: The Making of A Farewell to Arms (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 283.
Bernard Oldsey, “El Pueblo Español: ‘The Capital of the World’”
1 See Audre Hanneman’s Ernest Hemingway: A Comprehensive Bibliography and its Supplement. Perhaps the most flagrant indication of critical neglect is afforded by Lawrence Broer’s book-length study of Hemingway and Spain, Hemingway’s Spanish Tragedy (1973), in which "The Capital of the World" is never even mentioned. Yet, the story was quickly translated into many languages, including German, Polish, Portuguese, Japanese, and Spanish (the first time as "Los cuernos del toro," in Hoy, November 4, 1937). And it was made into a fine ballet—score by George Antheil, choreography by Eugene Loring—produced by the Ford Foundation Television Workshop on Omnibus, December 6, 1953, and later that month by the Ballet Theatre at the Metropolitan Opera House, December 27, 1953.
2 The Spanish Civil War broke out on July 17, 1936, just a few weeks after "The Capital of the World" was published.
3 In that sometimes wise, sometimes gaga essay Hemingway wrote on "The Art of the Short Story," he indicates that he was aware of just how much material he was putting into a story like "The Snows of Kilimanjaro." "So I invent," he says confidingly, "and put into one short story things you would use for, say, four novels. . . . I throw everything I had been saving into the story and spend it all" (Item #251, Hemingway Collection, John F. Kennedy Library). With perhaps just a little less ebullience he could have said the same thing about the composition of "The Capital of the World," because he put into that story most of what he had learned about Spain and its people.
4 Gerald Mast, Short History of the Movies (New York: Bobbs Merrill, 1979), p. 68.
5 All references are to "The Capital of the World" as published in The Stories of Ernest Hemingway (New York: Scribner’s, 1953); pagination is entered parenthetically in the text. (It should be noted that Frank L. Laurence, in Hemingway and the Movies [Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1981] comments on Hemingway’s crosscutting methods but with different emphases.)
6 Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s, 1969), p. 235.
7 Baker, Ernest Hemingway, pp. 313–15.
8 Katherine Anne Porter’s Ship of Fools has as progenitor the German classic Das Narrenshiff (1494). This satire helped prepare for the Protestant Reformation and was often imitated later, as in Alexander Barclay’s Ship of Fools (1509).
9 See The Oxford Companion to Film (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976) and World Encyclopedia of Film (New York: Galahad Books, 1972).
10 Hemingway either did not know the facts or took liberties with them. In "The Capital of the World" he implies that the public knew Garbo solely through films with lavish backgrounds in which she plays sophisticated ladies—like Queen Christina (1934), Anna Karenina (1935), and the movie in question, Grand Hotel (1932). But the working-class Anna Christie (1930), which was her first talkie, preceded these luxurious films. So did one of her earliest silent films, The joyless Street (1925), directed by G. W. Pabst. According to Gerald Mast, "Pabst’s street is joyless because it is a dead end of prostitution and early death." See Mast, Short History, p. 182.
11 Stephen A. Reid, "The Oedipal Pattern in Hemingway’s ‘The Capital of the World," Literature and Psychology 13 (Spring, 1963): 37–43.
12 Baker, Ernest Hemingway, p. 617. Also see letter to Arnold Gingrich, April 4, 1936, in which Hemingway listed other possible titles for the story: "Outside the Ring," "The Start of the Season," "A Boy Named Paco," "To Empty Stands," "The Judgment of Distance," and " The Sub-Novice Class." The ironic purchase of a title like "The Capital of the World" shows that Hemingway here, as he had in so many other instances, eventually chose a title worthy of the fiction it designates.
13 Reid, "Oedipal Pattern," p. 37.
14 Sheldon Grebstein, "Hemingway’s Dark and Bloody Capital," in The Thirties: Fiction, Poetry, Drama, ed. Warren French (Deland, Fla.: Everett Edwards, 1967), p. 25.
15 The translator is unnamed; the book is Ernest Hemingway: Relates (Barcelona: Luis de Caralt, i960), pp. 193–207. This edition, done under Franco’s regime and heavy censorship, omits many things
which the censors thought harmful to the purity and security of Spanish readers. There are, for example, no references to whores or whoring in this translation of "The Capital of the World"; all of that, including the cowardly matador’s attempted seduction of Pablo’s sister, was deleted. Even more bowdlerizing is the dropping of the parody forms of the Pater Noster and Ave Maria in this book’s version of "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place."
16 Into these stories Hemingway put everything that he could, but in a compressed manner, and this compression—this microcosmic presentation of a world view in "The Capital of the World"—is one of the things that readers of the story seem not to have given just due, probably because the foregrounding of Paco’s agony is so powerfully spotlighted.
17 Hemingway used crosscutting most extensively in For Whom the Bell Tolls, shifting from Robert Jordan to, among others, Anselmo, El Sordo, Andres, Karkov, and the fascist Lt. Berrendo. He even considered a conclusion for the novel which would cut away from the wounded Jordan to summarize what was happening away from the guerrilla action. As the epigraph for this essay indicates, Hemingway discussed this possible conclusion in a letter to Max Perkins. See Ernest Hemingway: Selected Letters, 1917–1961, ed. Carlos Baker (New York: Scribner’s, 1981), pp. 514–15.
18 The hidden heroine of this story is the woman who owns the Pension Luarca. She may use a "bolster" to maintain a low-level illusion, but she is also a sympathetic and realistically decent personage. Much of her character is revealed in this auctorial comment: "The descent from the Luarca was swift since anyone could stay there who was making anything at all and a bill was never presented to a guest unasked until the woman who ran the place knew that the case was hopeless" (p. 39). The middle-aged waiter also maintains a kind of balance, or at least does not give way to either illusion or disillusion. When the Anarcho-Syndicalist waiter chides him, saying "You are a good comrade. . . . But you lack ideology," the middle-aged waiter (a literary relative of the older waiter in "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place") responds, "Mejor si me falta eso que el otro" [It is better that I lack the one, ideology, than the other, work] (p. 42). He has always worked: "To work," he declares, "is normal." This matter-of-factness contrasts markedly with the youthful all-inclusiveness of Paco, who says nothing during the discussion between the two older men, but who thinks "He himself would like to be a good catholic [sic], a revolutionary, and have a steady job like this, while, at the same time, being a bullfighter" (pp. 42–43). "Ah, youth," as Joseph Conrad says in a story with that key word in the title.