The 1868 St. Bernard Parish Massacre
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39. Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 70.
40. Vincent Nolte, Fifty Years in Both Hemispheres: Reminiscences of the Life of a Former Merchant (New York: Redfield, 1854), 177.
41. Ron Chapman, The Battle of New Orleans: But for a Piece of Wood (Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing Company, 2013), 138.
42. George Washington Cable, Creole Slave Songs (New York: Century Co., 1886), 815.
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43. Wilson, Battle of New Orleans, 27; Harriet Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel, vol. 2 (London: Saunders and Otley, Conduit-Street, 1838), 155.
44. Walter Pritchard, ed., “Some Interesting Glimpses of Louisiana a Century Ago,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly (1941): 43–48.
45. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 93.
46. Ibid., 102.
47. Ibid., 100–3.
48. Ceceil George, in Ronnie W. Clayton, ed., Mother Wit: The Ex-Slave Narratives of the Louisiana Writers’ Project (New York, 1990), 83.
49. Ibid., 84.
50. John C. Rodrigue, Reconstruction in the Cane Fields: From Slavery to Free Labor in Louisiana’s Sugar Parishes, 1862–1880 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 21–22; 2004 Historical Census Browser, retrieved September 24, 2015, from the University of Virginia, Geospatial and Statistical Data Center, mapserver.lib.virginia.edu/collections.
51. Rodrigue, Reconstruction in the Cane Fields, 11.
52. Charles P. Roland, Louisiana Sugar Plantations During the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), 22–23.
53. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 105–6.
54. Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Confederacy, 1st ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 147; Jacek Praga and Wiesław Wróblewski, United Poles in America (Ames: Iowa State University, 2002), 33.
55. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 105, 113.
56. T. Harry Williams, P.G.T. Beauregard: Napoleon in Gray (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1955), 2–5.
57. Daily Picayune, “Meeting in St. Bernard,” June 27, 1848, 2.
58. John D. Winters and T. Harry Williams, The Civil War in Louisiana (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991), 25.
59. Ibid., 25–26.
60. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 110.
61. Ibid., 110.
62. Winters and Williams, Civil War in Louisiana, 56, 82.
63. Ibid., 82; Dale A. Somers, The Rise of Sports in New Orleans: 1850–1900 (New Orleans: Pelican Publishing Company, 1971), 76.
64. Michael D. Pierson, Mutiny at Fort Jackson: The Untold Story of the Fall of New Orleans (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2008), 58–60.
65. Ibid., 60–61.
66. Harnett Kane, Deep Delta Country (New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1994), 64.
67. Albert Patterson, in Ronnie W. Clayton, ed., Mother Wit: The Ex-Slave Narratives of the Louisiana Writers’ Project (New York, 1990), 179.
68. Winters and Williams, Civil War in Louisiana, 95–96.
69. Terry L. Jones, “The Fall of New Orleans,” New York Times, April 25, 2012.
70. Lawrence Van Alstyne, Diary of an Enlisted Man (New York: Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Company, 1910), 81.
71. Ibid., 82.
72. Ibid., 85.
73. John M. Sacher, “Civil War in Louisiana,” KnowLA Encyclopedia of Louisiana, January 6, 2011, accessed February 5, 2015, www.knowla.org/entry/536; Richard Nelson Current, Lincoln’s Loyalists: Union Soldiers from the Confederacy (n.p.: Northeastern, 1992), 218.
74. George, Mother Wit, 85.
75. Moon-Ho Jung, Coolies and Cane: Race, Labor, and Sugar in the Age of Emancipation (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 52.
76. Rodrigue, Reconstruction in the Cane Fields, 34.
77. Ibid., 22, 34.
78. Ibid., 35.
79. Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, 1863, Presidential Proclamations, 1791–1991, Record Group 11, General Records of the United States Government, National Archives.
80. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 118.
81. Ibid., 106.
82. Williams, P.G.T. Beauregard, 262–65.
83. Daily Picayune, September 28, 1865, 2.
84. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 112, 116.
85. Virginia Mescher, “How Sweet It Is: A Story of Sugar and Sugar Refining in the United States, Including a Glossary of Sweeteners,” January 10, 2005.
86. U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 1870, 41st Congress, 107, books.google.com/books?id=oO5XAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.
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87. Richard Campanella, “Fazendeville and Three Oaks: Reflecting on Two Cultural Losses 150 Years after Battle of New Orleans Victory,” Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans, March 2015, 13.
88. Ibid., 13–14.
89. Ronald H. Bayor, The Columbia Documentary History of Race and Ethnicity in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 295.
90. Records of the Assistant Commissioner for the State of Louisiana, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, 1865–1869, National Archives Microfilm M1027 Roll 34, Records Relating to Murders and Outrages, “Miscellaneous Reports and Lists Relating to Murders and Outrages, Mar. 1867–Nov. 1868,” December 25, 1866, accessed September 14, 2015, freedmensbureau.com/louisiana/outrages/outrages4.htm.
91. Caryn Cossé Bell, Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition in Louisiana, 1718–1868 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), 262.
92. New Orleans Tribune, “Meeting at the Parish of St. Bernard,” May 15, 1867, 4.
93. Leopold Guichard, “Freedom Vs. Outrages,” New Orleans Tribune, June 15, 1867, 4.
94. Rodrigue, Reconstruction in the Cane Fields, 86; U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 107.
95. Rodrigue, Reconstruction in the Cane Fields, 99.
96. James Alex Baggett, The Scalawags: Southern Dissenters in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004), 142.
97. Daily Picayune, “Riot in St. Bernard Parish: Democratic Barbecue Broken Up by Radicals—One Person Shot and a Number Severely Beaten,” April 14, 1868, 1.
98. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 3.
99. Ibid., 3; U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 103.
100. U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 112.
101. U.S. Congress, Louisiana Contested Elections, January 1, 1870, 41st Congress, 2nd sess., 1869–70, 630, books.google.com/books?id=oO5XAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA630&lpg=PA630#v=onepage&q&f=false.
102. U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 104; Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 3–4.
103. Ted Tunnell, Crucible of Reconstruction: War, Radicalism, and Race in Louisiana, 1862–1877 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992), 153; Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 5; U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 103.
104. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 5–6.
105. Ibid., 6.
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106. Ibid., 6, 26.
107. Ibid., 25.
108. Ibid., 7.
109. Ibid., 42.
110. U.S. Congress, Louisiana Contested Elections, 253.
111. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 7–8.
112. Ibid.
113. Ibid., 8, 30.
114. Testimony of Thomas Ong, Supplemental Report of Joint Committee of the General Assembly of Louisiana on the Conduct of the Late Elections.
115. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 9.
116. Ibid., 10.
117. Testimony of John B. Jacques, Supplemental Report of Joint Committee of the General Assembly of Louisiana on the Conduct of the Late Elections, 230; Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 10–22.
118. Ibid., 11.
119. Ibid.; U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee o
f Elections, Louisiana, 104.
120. Testimony of H.M. Whittemore, Supplemental Report of Joint Committee of the General Assembly of Louisiana on the Conduct of the Late Elections, 232–33; U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 106.
121. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 11.
122. Ibid., 11–12.
123. Ibid., 13–15; U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 105.
124. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 15.
125. Ibid., 15–16.
126. Ibid., 27–28.
127. Columbus Daily Enquirer, “Night Dispatches,” October 27, 1868, 3.
128. New York Herald, “The State of Affairs in Louisiana,” October 27, 1868, 6.
129. Ibid.; New Orleans Bee, “Negro Riot in St. Bernard Parish,” Tuesday morning, October 27, 1868.
130. Louisiana Democrat, November 2, 1868, image 2, chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82003389/1868-11-02/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=1868&index=2&rows=20&words=Bernard+parish+Parish+St&searchType=basic&sequence=0&state=&date2=1868&proxtext=st.+bernard+parish&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1.
131. Ibid.
132. Ibid.
133. U.S. Congress, Message of the President of the United States and Accompanying Documents, 1868, 40th Congress, 3rd Session, 1868, vol. 1, 306, books.google.com/books?id=Gp0dAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&lpg=PA306&dq.
134. New Orleans Republican, October 26, 1868, Evening, Image 1.
135. Ibid.
136. William Hyland (St. Bernard Parish historian), interviewed by C. Dier, New Orleans, LA, September 1, 2015.
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137. William L. Richter, Historical Dictionary of the Civil War and Reconstruction (n.p.: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004), 426–27.
138. Ibid., 427.
139. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 16; U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 104.
140. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 17.
141. Ibid.
142. Ibid., 18.
143. Ibid., 34–35.
144. Ibid., 18.
145. Ibid., 20.
146. Louisiana General Assembly, Supplemental Report of Joint Committee of the General Assembly of Louisiana on the Conduct of the Late Elections, xviii.
147. U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election and the Condition of Peace and Good Order of the State, November 27, 1868, 44th Congress, 2nd session, 1868, 253, books.google.com/books?id=pZwFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.
148. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 19.
149. Ibid., 31–32.
150. Ibid., 19–20.
151. Ibid., 20.
152. Ibid., 22.
153. Ibid., 20; U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election, 256.
154. U.S. Congress, Testimony Taken by the Committee of Elections, Louisiana, 105.
155. Melinda Meek Hennessey, “Race and Violence in Reconstruction New Orleans: The 1868 Riot,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 20, no. 1 (Winter 1979): 90.
156. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 28.
157. Ibid., 28–29.
158. Ibid., 36.
159. U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election 105, 255.
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160. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 19.
161. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, The Miscellaneous Documents, 1872, 42nd Congress, 2nd session, vol. 4, no. 267, 321, books.google.com/books?id=fC1YAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA321&lpg#v=onepage&q&f=false.
162. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 25.
163. Ibid., 39.
164. Ibid., 21, 40–42.
165. Ibid., 21.
166. Ibid.
167. Testimony of Phillip Taylor, U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election, 260–61.
168. Rodrigue, Reconstruction in the Cane Fields, 101.
169. Ibid., 99–102.
170. Testimony of John Lewis Spalding, Supplemental Report of Joint Committee of the General Assembly of Louisiana on the Conduct of the Late Elections, 252.
171. U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election, 254.
172. Ibid.
173. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 43; U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election, 258.
174. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 43.
175. Ibid., 43–44; Louisiana General Assembly, Supplemental Report of Joint Committee of the General Assembly of Louisiana on the Conduct of the Late Elections, 263; James Hollandsworth, An Absolute Massacre: The New Orleans Race Riot of July 30, 1866 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 2001), 22.
176. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Index to the Executive Documents, 44th Congress, 2nd Session, 1876–77, 259, books.google.com/books?id=b6AZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259&lpg#v=onepage&q&f=false.
177. U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election, 259– 60; Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 2.
178. Lee, St. Bernard Riot, 1, 42.
179. U.S. Congress, Rooms of Committee on the Conduct of the Late Election, 253.
180. Ibid., 256–57, 260.
181. Louisiana Congress, Report of Joint Committee of the General Assembly of Louisiana, On the Conduct of the Late Elections, 18.
182. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Index to the Executive Documents, 189.
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183. “U.S. Decennial Census,” University of Virginia Library, accessed September 21, 2016, mapserver.lib.virginia.edu.
184. Tennell, Crucible of Reconstruction, 156; William Windom and Henry W. Blair, “The Proceedings of a Migration Convention and Congressional Action Respecting the Exodus of 1879,” The Journal of Negro History 4, no. 1 (January 1919): 51–92, www.jstor.org/stable/2713709.
185. Tennell, Crucible of Reconstruction, 156; Hennessey, “Race and Violence in Reconstruction New Orleans,” 88.
186. Jerome J. Salomone, Bread and Respect: The Italians of Louisiana (Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing, 2014), 71.
187. Richard Campanella, “Chinatown, New Orleans,” Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans, November 2013, 16–17.
188. Jung, Coolies and Cane, 186–87.
189. Ibid., 204.
190. Tennell, Crucible of Reconstruction, 189.
191. Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 237.
192. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Perennial Classics, 2002), 550; Rosary O’Neill, New Orleans Carnival Krewes (Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2014), 120.
193. Know Louisiana, the Digital Encyclopedia of Louisiana and Home of Louisiana Cultural Vistas, “The Battle of Liberty Place,” accessed October 3, 2016, www.knowla.org/entry/757.
194. James K. Hogue, “The 1873 Battle of Colfax: Para-militarism and Counterrevolution in Louisiana,” June 2006, 21, warhistorian.org/hogue-colfax.pdf.
195. Rodrigue, Reconstruction in the Cane Fields, 176.
196. William Hair, Bourbonism and Agrarian Protest: Louisiana Politics, 1877–1900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969), 83–90.
197. Ibid., 89–96.
198. Ibid., 83–91.
199. Daily Picayune, “Riot in St. Bernard: The Plantation Laborers on Strike,” April 19, 1881, 1.
200. Boston Daily Journal, “The Labor Movement: A Louisiana Strike,” April 20, 1881, 2.
201. Daily City Item, “Labor Trouble in St. Bernard,” April 20, 1881, 1.
202. Daily Picayune, “Murdered in Court,” September 16, 1893, 1.
203. Ibid.
204. New-York Tribune, “Three Brothers Lynched: Negro Hunting in Louisiana,” September 18, 1893, 1.
205. Ibid.
206. Daily Picayune, “Execution in St. Bernard: Albert and Charles Goodman Hanged for the Murder of Louis Maspero,” November 1, 1884, 8.
207. New Haven Evening Register, �
�A Louisiana Lynching: The Murderer of a Prominent Sugar Planter Is Promptly Dealt With,” May 7, 1886, 3.
208. Daily Item, “Desperado King: Lynching Party in St. Bernard Parish,” December 24, 1894, 1.
209. Ibid.
210. Ibid.
211. Daily Picayune, “Midnight Lynching in St. Bernard Parish: James Dandy, the Negro Who Assaulted a White Lady,” May 20, 1896, 3; Birmingham State Herald, “He’ll Dazzle No More: Short Shrift for a Dusky Fiend in St. Bernard Parish, La,” May 20, 1896, 1.
212. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 124.
213. Ibid., 124–25; Richard H. Pildes, “Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon,” 2000, 303, accessed November 21, 2015.
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214. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 123; infoweb.newsbank.com.libproxy.tulane.edu:2048/iw-search/we/HistArchive/?p_product=EANX&p_theme=ahnp&p_nbid=X70G5AIRMTQ0MDk4OTU5NS42NTc3NjoxOjEzOjEyOS44MS4yMjYuNzg&p_action=doc&s_lastnonissuequeryname=11&d_viewref=search&p_queryname=11&p_docnum=65&p_docref=v2:1228C1F96EAE924B@EANX-122BB247C0B92E40@2408191-122AC61526BB5FF0@0-123B174F46FAD1C8@.
215. Alcée Fortier, Louisiana Studies: Literature, Customs and Dialects, History and Education (New Orleans: F.F. Hansell & Bro., 1894), 199–200.
216. Ibid., 200.
217. Ibid., 200–3.
218. Ibid., 206.
219. Ibid., 207–10.
220. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 128–29.
221. Ibid., 129–30.
222. Times-Picayune, “St. Bernard News and Minor Mention: Patrons of Dauphine Line Prepare to Fight Proposed Discontinuance,” August 19, 1917, 8B; New Orleans States, “Italians to Celebrate,” August 10, 1924, 21.
223. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 131.
224. Daily Picayune, “In St. Bernard: St. Louis Capitalists, Interested in Reclamation of Lands, Will Visit Parish…,” September 9, 1909, 4; Daily Picayune, “In St. Bernard: Last St. Bernard Sugar Mill Removed from Parish,” August 13, 1910, 4.
225. Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 146.
226. Perez, Isleños of Louisiana, 51; Din, Canary Islanders of Louisiana, 146–49.
227. Times-Picayune, “Striking Butchers Nearly All Working: Hence Refuse to Slaughter Cattle Companies Have on Hand,” August 28, 1919, 12.
228. Times-Picayune, “Butcher’s Union Ends Long Strike: Men Back at Work in Rendering and Fertilizing Company,” December 20, 1920, 10.