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Iron Curtain

Page 69

by Anne Applebaum


  45. Ibid., p. 126.

  46. Ibid., p. 126.

  47. Csaba Szabó, Egyházügyi hangulatjelentések (Budapest, 2000), pp. 125, 136.

  48. Wentker, “Kirchenkampf in der DDR,” p. 116.

  49. MOL, 276 f. 65/359.

  50. See Wojciech Czuchnowski, Blizna. Proces Kurii krakowskiej 1953 (Kraków, 2003).

  51. See Csaba Szabó, A Grősz-per előkészítés (Budapest, 2001).

  52. Kiszely, ÁVH, pp. 104–5.

  53. Mindszenty, Memoirs, pp. 1–2.

  54. Andrzej Micewski, Cardinal Wyszyński: A Biography, trans. William R. Brand and Katzarzyna Mroczowska-Brand (New York, 1984), pp. 1–2.

  55. Margit Balogh, Mindszenty József: 1892–1975 (Budapest, 2002), pp. 60–76.

  56. Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński, A Freedom Within, trans. Barbara Krzywicki-Herburt and Reverend Walter J. Ziemba (New York, 1982), p. 15.

  57. Árpád Pünkösti, “You Are Not Primate Here,” The Hungarian Quarterly 36, 144 (Winter 1996).

  58. Balogh, Mindszenty József, p. 100.

  59. Mindszenty, Memoirs, p. 76.

  60. Ibid., p. 100.

  61. Wyszyński, Freedom Within, pp. 25–26.

  62. Micewski, Cardinal Wyszyński, p. 66.

  63. ˙Zaryn, Dzieje Koscioła Katolickiego w Polsce, pp. 134–56.

  64. Micewski, Cardinal Wyszyński, p. 20.

  65. Mindszenty, Memoirs, pp. 197–98.

  66. Micewski, Cardinal Wyszyński, pp. 53–55.

  67. Balogh, Mindszenty József, pp. 16–18.

  68. Interview with Hans-Jochen Tschiche, Satuelle, November 18, 2006.

  69. Keith Armes, “Chekists in Cassocks,” Demokratisatsiya 4 (1993), pp. 72–83.

  70. OSA, 300/50/6, folder 124.

  71. M. Tinz, “Friedenspriester in der Tschechoslowakei. Im Dienste der Partei,” Digest des Ostens (1977), p. 42.

  72. Orbán, Katolikus papok békemozgalma Magyarországon, p. 94.

  73. Ibid., pp. 103–4.

  74. Ibid., pp. 107–8.

  75. Ibid.

  76. Jacek ˙Zurek, Ruch “Ksiezy Patriotow” (Warsaw, 2008), pp. 56–59.

  77. Orbán, Katolikus papok békemozgalma Magyarországon, pp. 188–89.

  78. Tadeusz Isakowicz-Zaleski, Ksi˛eza Wobec Bezpieki (Kraków, 2007), p. 44.

  79. OSA, 300/50/6, folder 124.

  80. ˙Zurek, Ruch “Ksiezy Patriotow,” p. 105.

  81. Isakowicz-Zaleski, Ksi˛eza Wobec Bezpieki, p. 46.

  82. Ibid.

  83. Interview with Sándor Ladányi, Budapest, March 12, 2008; see also Sándor Ladányi, A magyar református egyház 1956 tükrében (Budapest, 2006), and Isakowicz-Zaleski, Ksi˛eza Wobec Bezpieki.

  12. INTERNAL ENEMIES

  1. Arthur Koestler, Darkness at Noon (New York, 2006), p. 244.

  2. Csaba Békés, Malcolm Byrne, and János Rainer, eds., The 1956 Hungarian Revolution: A History in Documents (Budapest and New York, 2002), p. 16.

  3. Joel Kotek and Pierre Rigolout, Le Siècle des camps (Paris, 2001), pp. 544–48; also Andrzej Paczkowski, “Poland, the Enemy Nation,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., eds., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 363–93.

  4. Romulus Rusan, The Chronology and Geography of Repression in Romania (Bucharest, 2007), pp. 28–30.

  5. Paczkowski, “Poland, the Enemy Nation,” pp. 237–38.

  6. György Gyarmati, “Hungary in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century,” in István György Tóth, ed., A Concise History of Hungary (Budapest, 2005), pp. 58–581.

  7. Rusan, Chronology and Geography of Repression, p. 31.

  8. Karta, Memoir Archives, Wacław Beynar, II/542.

  9. Ibid., Stanisław Szostak, II/2944.

  10. Alina Gałan and Zygmunt Mańkowski, eds., Wi˛ezniowie Politcyzni na Zamku Lubelskim (Lublin, 1996), pp. 20–31.

  11. Frank Drauschke, Arseny Roginsky, and Anna Kaminsky, eds., Erschossen in Moskau (Berlin, 2005).

  12. Barbara Bank, “Az internálás és kitelepítés dokumentumai a történeti levéltárban,” Az átmenet évkönyve, 2003 (Budapest, 2004), pp. 125–30; also Gyarmati, “Hungary in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century,” p. 581.

  13. Rusan, Chronology and Geography of Repression, pp. 31–32.

  14. Kotek and Rigolout, Le Siècle des camps, pp. 543–44.

  15. Dennis Deletant, Romania Under Communist Rule (Bucharest, 2006), p. 109.

  16. Tzvetan Todorov, Voices from the Gulag, trans. Robert Zaretsky (University Park, Pa., 1999), pp. 39–40.

  17. Kotek and Rigolout, Le Siècle des camps, p. 559.

  18. Bank, “Az internálás és kitelepítés dokumentumai a történeti levéltárban,” pp. 107–30.

  19. See Magyar tudóslexikon A-tól Zs-ig (Budapest, 1998), p. 192; Magyar Internacionalisták (Budapest, 1980); Rudolf Garasin, Vörössipkás lovagok (Budapest, 1967); Rudolf Garasin, Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó (Budapest, 1976).

  20. PIL, 867/f.11/g-24, pp. 15–58.

  21. MOL, 276/65184, pp. 133–39.

  22. From conversations with Mária Schmidt, Sándor M. Kiss, and Barbara Bank; also Géza Böszörményi, Recsk 1950–1953 (Budapest, 2005), p. 49.

  23. Bank, “Az internálás és kitelepítés dokumentumai a történeti levéltárban,” p. 122.

  24. From a conversation with Barbara Bank, Recsk, July 4, 2009.

  25. Böszörményi, Recsk, p. 261.

  26. ABTL, 3.1.9. V-107373.

  27. György Faludy, My Happy Days in Hell, trans. Kathleen Szasz (London, 2010), p. 304.

  28. Törvénytelen szocializmus: A Tényfeltáró Bizottság jelentése (Budapest, 1991), p. 96.

  29. Faludy, My Happy Days in Hell, p. 371.

  30. PIL, 962/2.

  31. Fitzroy Maclean, Eastern Approaches (London, 1991), pp. 82, 94.

  32. I heard this lecture as a Yale undergraduate, in the autumn of 1982.

  33. Mária Schmidt, Battle of Wits, trans. Ann Major (Budapest, 2007), p. 171.

  34. T. V. Volokitina et al., eds., Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiskikh arkhivov 1944–1953 (Moscow and Novosibirsk, 1997), pp. 814–29.

  35. Ibid., pp. 936–42.

  36. Andrzej Paczkowski et al., Polska w Dokumentach z archiwow rosyjskich 1949–1953 (Warsaw, 2000), pp. 82–83.

  37. Volokitina et al., eds., Vostochnaya Evropa, pp. 830–58.

  38. Igor Lukes, “The Rudolf Slánský Affair: New Evidence,” Slavic Review 58, 1 (Spring 1999), pp. 160–66.

  39. Ibid., pp. 164–66.

  40. Jří Pelikán, ed., The Czechoslovak Political Trials, 1950–1954: The Suppressed Report of the Dubček Government’s Commission of Inquiry, 1968 (Stanford, 1975), pp. 104–9.

  41. Igor Lukes, Rudolf Slánský: His Trials and Trial, Cold War International History Project (Washington, DC, 2006), p. 52.

  42. Zbigniew Bla˙zynski, Mówi Józef Światło (Warsaw, 2003), pp. 252–53.

  43. Andrzej Werblan, Stalinizm w Polsce (Warsaw, 2009), p. 128.

  44. George H. Hodos, Show Trials: Stalinist Purges in Eastern Europe, 1948–1954 (New York, 1987), p. 135.

  45. Ibid., p. 28.

  46. Schmidt, Battle of Wits, p. 108; also Lukes, “The Rudolf Slánský Affair,” pp. 166–69.

  47. Schmidt, Battle of Wits, pp. 133–35.

  48. Lászlo Rajk and His Accomplices Before the People’s Court, publication of the Hungarian state prosecutor’s office (Budapest, 1949), pp. 146–63.

  49. Béla Szász, Volunteers for the Gallows (New York, 1971), p. 123.

  50. Karel Kaplan, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary, trans. Karel Kovanda (Columbus, 1990), p. 44.

  51. Ibid., pp. 152–92; Lászlo Rajk and His Accomplices, pp. 146–63; Szász, Volunteers for the Gallows, p. 123.

  52. Pelikán, Czechoslovak Political Trials, p. 81.

  53. Konrad Rokicki, “Aparatu obraz Wlasny,” in Kazimierz Krajewski and Tomasza Labuszewski, eds., Zwyczajny Resort: Studia o aparacie bezpieczeństwa 1944–1956 (Warsaw, 2005), p. 1
12.

  54. Tomáš Bouška and Klara Pinerova, Czechoslovak Political Prisoners (Prague, 2009), p. 14.

  55. Szász, Volunteers for the Gallows, pp. 51, 59.

  56. Konrad Rokicki, ed., Departament X MBP: Wzorce—Struktury—Dzialanie (Warsaw, 2007), p. 113.

  57. Ibid., pp. 110–11.

  58. Bouška and Pinerova, Czechoslovak Political Prisoners, p. 15.

  59. István Rév, “Indicting Rajk,” paper given at the University of Pennsylvania Slavic Department Spring Research Symposium, April 18, 2009, available at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/slavic/events/​slavic_symposium/Comrades_Please_Shoot_Me/​Rev_Rajk.pdf.

  60. The quotes which follow are from a transcript that was in the possession of Mieczysław Rakowski and is now available at HIA, Rakowski Collection.

  61. Jo Langer, Convictions: My Life with a Good Communist (London, 2011), p. 30.

  62. Michael Scammell, Koestler: The Literary and Political Odyssey of a Twentieth-Century Skeptic (New York, 2009), p. 413.

  63. OSA, 23-1-25.

  64. József Mindszenty, Emlékirataim (Budapest, 1989), p. 100.

  65. Szász, Volunteers for the Gallows, p. 56.

  66. Melissa Feinberg, “Only an Imperialist Could Think Up Such a Notion,” paper given at the University of Pennsylvania Slavic Department Spring Research Symposium, April 18, 2009.

  67. Karta, Memoir Archives, file “Ró˙zności, 1944–56.”

  68. Frage und Antwort 6 (1950).

  69. Karta, Memoir Archives, file “Ró˙zności, 1944–56.” The Colorado potato beetles can also be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0CYKU9jmBK0.

  70. HALT Amikäfer (Berlin: Amt für Information der Regierung der DDR, 1950).

  71. OSA, documentary film collection, Statarium, directed by András Sipos, 1989.

  72. MOL, 276/65/324, p. 36.

  73. Faludy, My Happy Days in Hell, p. 254.

  74. Ibid., p. 240.

  75. Langer, Convictions, p. 2.

  76. Interview with Attila Pok, Budapest, February 13, 2009.

  77. Zsuzsanna Ágnes Berényi, A szabadkőművesség kézikönyve (Budapest, 2001), pp. 185–87, 193; “Grossaufseher: A magyar szabadkőművesség története 1945 és 1950 között: módszerek és célkitűzések,” Kelet (January 2008), pp. 62–76.

  78. ABTL, O-8511, pp. 1–9.

  13. Homo sovieticus

  1. Gyula Schöpflin, Szélkiáltó (Budapest, 1985), p. 62.

  2. Alexander Zinoviev, Homo Sovieticus, trans. Charles Janson (Boston, 1986).

  3. Freien Deutschen Jugend und des Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus beim Zentralkommitee der SED, Partei und Jugend: Dokumente marxistischer-leninistischer Jugendpolitik (East Berlin, 1986), p. 326.

  4. Ulrich Mählert, Die Freie Deutsche Jugend 1945–1949 (Paderborn, 1995), p. 34.

  5. Heinz-Hermann Krüger and Winfried Marotzki, “Pädagogik und Erziehungsalltag in der DDR: Zwischen Systemvorgaben und Pluralität,” in Studien zur Erziehungswissenschaft und Bildungsforschung 2 (Opladen, 1994), p. 195.

  6. See, for example, Janusz Korczak, Ghetto Diary (New Haven, 2003); see also http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/ghettos/korczak.html.

  7. A. S. Makarenko, The Road to Life, vol. II, trans. Ivy and Tatiana Litvinov (Moscow, 1951), p. 206.

  8. Leonore Ansorg, Kinder im Klassenkampf: Die Geschichte der Pionierorganisation von 1948 bis Ende der fünfziger Jahre (Berlin, 1997), pp. 30–40.

  9. Marta Brodala, “Propaganda dla Najmłodszych w Latach 1948–1956,” in Przebudowac Człowieka (Warsaw, 2001), p. 21.

  10. Ibid., pp. 58–63.

  11. Ibid., p. 57.

  12. Alex Wedding, Die Fahne des Pfeiferhansleins (Berlin, 1953), pp. 231–32.

  13. Radek Sikorski, Full Circle: A Homecoming to Free Poland (New York, 1997), p. 37.

  14. AAN, Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej, 230, pp. 1–7.

  15. Rafal Stobiecki, Historiografia PRL (Warsaw, 2007), p. 73.

  16. Siegfried Baske and Martha Engelbert, Dokumente zur Bildungspolitik in der sowjetischen Besatzungszone (Berlin, 1966), p. 87.

  17. Ibid., pp. 4–8.

  18. Frederick Taylor, Exorcising Hitler: The Occupation and Denazification of Germany (London, 2011), p. 327.

  19. AAN, MEN 598, p. 1.

  20. Ibid., MEN 587, pp. 4–8.

  21. Ibid., MEN 592, pp. 21–26.

  22. Ibid., MEN 588, p. 495.

  23. Ibid., MEN 241, pp. 5–15.

  24. Baske and Engelbert, Dokumente zur Bildungspolitik, p. 26.

  25. AAN, MEN 238, p. 22.

  26. John Connelly, Captive University: The Sovietization of East German, Czech, and Polish Higher Education 1945–1956 (Chapel Hill and London, 2000), p. 97.

  27. Ibid., p. 43.

  28. Ibid., p. 71.

  29. Ibid., p. 135.

  30. Ibid., p. 84.

  31. Ibid., p. 178.

  32. Partei und Jugend, p. 345.

  33. Andrzej Gawryszewski, Ludnosc Polski w XX wieku (Warsaw, 2005), pp. 328–29.

  34. Interview with Eugeniusz Mroczowski, Warsaw, May 25, 2007.

  35. Connelly, Captive University, p. 228.

  36. Ibid., pp. 235, 252.

  37. Bartosz Cichocki and Krzyzstof Józwiak, Najwa˙zniejsze s˛a Kadry: Centralna Szkoła Partyjna PPR/PZPR (Warsaw, 2006), pp. 68–80.

  38. Connelly, Captive University, p. 239.

  39. Ibid., pp. 246–47.

  40. James Mark, “Discrimination, Opportunity, and Middle-Class Success in Early Communist Hungary,” The Historical Journal 48, 2 (June 2005), p. 506.

  41. Interview with Krzysztof Pomian, Warsaw, May 2, 2008.

  42. Interview with Erich Loest, Leipzig, December 12, 2006.

  43. Conversation with Piotr Paszkowski, Warsaw, May 2012.

  44. Blazej Brzostek, Robotnicy Warszawy (Warsaw, 2002), pp. 45–47.

  45. AAN, MEN 581.

  46. Brodala, “Propaganda dla Najmłodszych w Latach,” pp. 40–44.

  47. MOL, 276/65/156, pp. 63–86.

  48. SAPMO-BA, DY 30/J IV 2/2 A 415.

  49. Brodala, “Propaganda dla Najmłodszych w Latach,” p. 48.

  50. “Frohe Ferientage für alle Kinder,” Beschluss des Politbüros vom 30.3.1951, Anlagenummer fünf; SAPMO-BA, DY 30/IV 2/905/130, Bl. 8ff.

  51. SAPMO-BA, DY 25/482.

  52. PIL, 286/23, pp. 118–30.

  53. Ibid., 286/18, pp. 214–15.

  54. Interview with Pomian.

  55. 1956 Institute, File 22.

  56. Wi˛esław Kot, “Wyścigowiec ofiarny,” Wprost 43 (2007), pp. 86–92; see also Padraic Kenney, Rebuilding Poland: Workers and Communists 1945–1950 (Ithaca, 1997), p. 247.

  57. Sándor Horváth, “Élmunkások és sztahanovisták,” História (August 1998).

  58. John Rodden, Repainting the Little Red Schoolhouse: A History of Eastern German Education, 1945–1995 (New York, 2002), p. 58.

  59. Ibid., p. 59.

  60. MOL, 276/65/156, p. 35.

  61. In Izabella Main, “President of Poland or ‘Stalin’s Most Faithful Pupil?’: The Cult of Bolesław Bierut in Stalinist Poland,” in Balász Apor et al., eds., The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships (New York, 2004), p. 188.

  62. Paul Gregory, The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives (Cambridge, 2004), pp. 103–9.

  63. MOL, 276/65/156, pp. 1–6.

  64. DRA, F 201-00-00/0002, p. 41.

  65. David Priestland, Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power, and Terror in Inter-war Russia (New York, 2007), p. 314.

  66. Quoted in Mark Pittaway, “The Reproduction of Hierarchy: Skill, Working-Class Culture, and the State in Early Socialist Hungary,” The Journal of Modern History 74, 4 (December 2002), p. 742.

  67. Dagmar Semmelmann, “Man war total entwurzelt und musste erst wieder Wurzeln schlagen”: Zur Integration von Flüchtlingen und Vertriebenen in der SBZ/DDR aus lebensgeschichtlicher Sicht—dargestellt am Sonderfall Eisenhüttenstadt (
oral history, published on CD, 2005).

  68. Pittaway, “Reproduction of Hierarchy,” p. 741.

  69. MOL, 276/65/186, pp. 10–135.

  70. PIL, 286/18, p. 217.

  71. The Hungarian Museum of Ethnography commemorated this exhibition in March 2012, on the sixtieth anniversary: see http://www.neprajz.hu/kiallitasok.php?menu=3&kiallitas_id=121.

  72. Main, “President of Poland or ‘Stalin’s Most Faithful Pupil?,’ ” pp. 179–93.

  73. SAPMO-BA, DY 30/J IV 2/2/, p. 22.

  74. Christian Ostermann, ed., Uprising in East Germany 1953: The Cold War, the German Question, and the First Major Upheaval Behind the Iron Curtain (Budapest and New York, 2001), p. 20.

  75. SAPMO-BA, DY/30/IV 2/1/ 61, pp. 136–57.

  76. See, for example, SAPMPO-BA, DY 30/IV/ 2/9.06/173; see also DRA, 201-00-0010003, pp. 129–33.

  77. BStU MfSZ—Sekretariat d. Ministers (Min.) 387, pp. 502–5.

  78. DRA, B012765756; also Harry Pross, “On Mann’s Political Career,” Journal of Contemporary History 2, 2 (April 1967), p. 80.

  79. Alan Nothnagle, Building the East Germany Myth (Ann Arbor, 1999), pp. 63–67.

  80. AAN, Ministerstwo Kultury, no. 274.

  81. Ibid., nos. 274, 724, 747.

  82. Ibid., no. 478.

  83. SAPMO-BA, DY 24/2.120, p. 55.

  84. Ibid., DY 24/2.414.

  85. Ibid., DY 25/248.

  86. PIL, 286.19, p. 207.

  87. Artur Pasko, Wyścig Pokoju w dokumentach władz partyjnych i państwowych 1948–1989 (Kraków, 2009), pp. 21–30.

  88. Magdolna Baráth, ed., Szovjet nagyköveti iratok Magyarországról 1953–1956 (Budapest, 2002), p. 175.

  89. J.C.C., “The Berlin Youth Festival: Its Role in the Peace Campaign,” The World Today 7, 7 (July 1951), pp. 306–15.

  90. Giles Scott-Smith and Hans Krabbendam, eds., The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe, 1945–1960 (London, 2003), pp. 172–73.

  91. BStU MfSZ, BdL 003465.

  92. Ibid., 000012.

  93. Ibid., 000015.

  94. Ibid., 000012.

  95. Ibid., 15194.

  96. J.C.C., “The Berlin Youth Festival,” p. 311.

  97. Available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIGa6YcTU8s.

  98. Interview with Lothar Grimm, Eistenhüttenstadt, April 27, 2007.

  99. Jacek Trznadel, Hańba Domowa (Paris, 1986), pp. 22–23.

  100. Interview with Hans Modrow, Berlin, December 7, 2006.

 

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