by Bob Woodward
1
(2) Dick Cheney and Colin Powell aboard a military airplane on a trip to the Gulf.
(3) Panamanian leader General Manuel Noriega on October 4, 1989, the day after he suppressed a coup attempt against his regime.
(4) Lieutenant General Carl W. Stiner, warfighting commander of the 1989 Panama invasion.
(5) Admiral William J. Crowe, Jr., Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from October 1,1985, to October 1, 1989.
(6) General Maxwell R. Thurman, Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Southern Command, on December 22, 1989, two days into the Panamanian operation.
(7) Secretary of State James A. Baker III voting at the United Nations November 29,1990, for the resolution authorizing the use of force to eject Iraqi occupiers from Kuwait.
(8) Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi Arabian ambassador to the United States, with Secretary of Defense Cheney in Cheney’s Pentagon office.
(9) Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
(10) President Bush meets in Oval Office with the Emir of Kuwait, on September 28, 1990.
(11) August 4, 1990, meeting at Camp David to review military options two days after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. From left, Paul Wolfowitz, Dick Cheney, President Bush, Vice President Quayle, John Sununu, William Webster, Marlin Fitzwater, Richard Haass, James Baker, General Colin Powell, Brent Scowcroft, General Norman Schwarzkopf.
(12) President Bush meets with his inner circle at Camp David.
(13) On Sunday, August 5, 1990, President Bush, speaking on the White House lawn about the Iraqi invasion, asserts, “This will not stand.”
(14) General Powell addresses the troops in September 1990 on the battleship USS Wisconsin in the Persian Gulf.
(15) Dick Cheney at his desk in the Secretary’s third-floor Pentagon office.
(16) General Schwarzkopf and Saudi Arabian King Fahd reviewing coalition group troops before the air war began.
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(20) Pentagon spokesman Pete Williams.
(21) Lieutenant General Thomas W. Kelly, Director of Operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
(22) The War Room in the National Military Command Center of the Pentagon.
(23) Oval Office meeting in December 1990. From left, Robert Gates, Cheney, President Bush, Powell, Sununu, Scowcroft.
(24) The Big Eight meet in the Oval Office on January 15, 1991, to review the National Security Directive ordering the offensive operation to liberate Kuwait. From left, Gates, Sununu, Cheney, Quayle, President Bush, Baker, Scowcroft, Powell.
(25) The Joint Chiefs of Staff, May 4, 1990. Left to right: General Alfred M. Gray, Marine Corps Commandant; General Carl E. Vuono, Army chief of staff; Admiral Carlisle A. H. Trost, Chief of Naval Operations; General Larry D. Welch, Air Force chief of staff; General Colin L. Powell, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff; Admiral David E. Jeremiah, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
(26) Powell, Cheney, and Schwarzkopf meeting in Saudi Arabia.
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Acknowledgments
Richard E. Snyder, the chairman of Simon & Schuster Inc., has faithfully backed all my books. This, my sixth, was his idea. In 1987, he suggested a book on the Pentagon and Joint Chiefs of Staff, saying that the American military was probably the institution that was both the most powerful and the least understood in the country. I had always wanted to write about the military and we soon agreed it would be my next book. Over the next four years he gave me all the support he promised. That’s unusual in any relationship, and I thank him for that and for his continuing friendship.
Benjamin C. Bradlee and Leonard Downie, Jr., the two top editors at The Washington Post, generously gave me the time I needed. This project was repeatedly extended as military operations, deployments and wars overwhelmed me. These two editors, the best in the business, support intense and neutral inquiry. The latitude they granted me allowed me to better understand the military and the Bush administration. Deputy Managing Editor Robert G. Kaiser offered his usual thoughtful, tough reading of the manuscript. Steve Luxenberg, the deputy projects editor and one of the most caring people practicing journalism today, did both my job and his at the Post. I owe him much. Lucy Shackelford, master researcher at the Post, is owed a thousand thanks. So is the staff of the Post library, which is always there to help. The Post photo department and the White House photo office helped on many occasions.
David Hume Kennedy, the White House photographer to President Gerald Ford, supplied the best pictures of Dick Cheney and Colin Powell that I’ve ever seen. Kennerly is an artist.
Though nearly all the information in this book is based on my own reporting, I also used hundreds of newspaper and magazine articles. The Pentagon’s daily Early Bird, normally 14 to 16 pages of newspaper clippings reprinted each morning, is one of the best, most sophisticated packages of information put out. The Early Bird staff has an extraordinary eye for news.
The Washington Post, The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times and The Wall Street Journal cover military and foreign policy so well and thoroughly they not only present the news but frame the debate. I have relied on them frequently. Much gratitude to Post colleagues Rick Atkinson, David Hoffman, Jim Hoagland, Barton Gellman, Molly Moore, Ann Devroy, Dan Balz, George Wilson, R. Jeffrey Smith, Walter Pincus, Don Oberdorfer, Al Kamen and dozens of others. I give extra appreciation to Michael Getler, David Ignatius and their team of extraordinary foreign correspondents, who have done such spectacular work over the last two years. No one can attempt to write about the Pentagon or military affairs and not acknowledge the exceptional work of Patrick E. Tyler, Michael Gordon, R. W. Apple, Jr., and others of The New York Times.
Television news assisted me greatly. Pentagon reporters such as Fred Francis of NBC, David Martin of CBS and Bob Zelnick of ABC often have the story first. Any examination of the news coverage of recent military crises would show how serious and comprehensive their work is. Someday these reporters will receive the credit they deserve. The Public Broadcasting Service’s MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour offered the most in-depth forum for discussion of the recent military actions.
At Simon & Schuster, I extend my appreciation to Adelle-Marie Stan, Sophie Sorkin, Marcia Peterson, Eve Metz and Frank Metz. To Ann Adelman, gratitude for her careful, discerning copyediting.
Alice Mayhew, my editor at Simon & Schuster, helped immeasurably with the concepts, tone, language and clarity. She found many pages that needed to be cut or tightened as her variously colored pens marched through the manuscript time and time again. My affection and esteem to her.
Robert B. Barnett, agent and lawyer extraordinaire, was guide and counselor in a manner that would make Ed Williams proud.
Tali, my terrific daughter, is also one of my best friends. She, too, urged that I do a book on the military and provided much encouragement. Thanks to Rosa Castillo, who fed and cared for Bill, Marc and myself.
My greatest thanks go to the hundreds of sources. By the end, some were very unhappy to hear from me with one more request for more information. There are many special people in the Pentagon and elsewhere, high and low in rank, who gave me their time and trust. They know who they are. Most must go unnamed and unidentified. Extra thanks to the many able people in Pentagon public affairs, particularly those in the offices of Pentagon spokesman Pete Williams and JCS spokesman Colonel William Smullen.
My wife, Elsa Walsh, gave daily personal and professional sustenance. A procession of interview notes, chapter drafts and my doubts were delivered to her at the end of her own work day, on weekends, and even vacations. Cheerfully and critically, she examined and helped me revise and understand. She has brought balance to my life.
One of the final pieces of the Richard Nixon puzzle.
The Last of the President's Men
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BOB WOODWARD, a reporter and editor at The Washington Post for thirty-three years, has authored or coauthored ten
New York Times #1 bestsellers, including Plan of Attack, Bush at War, Shadow, The Agenda, The Commanders, Veil, Wired, The Brethren, The Final Days and All the President’s Men.
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Also by Bob Woodward
Plan of Attack
Bush at War
Maestro: Greenspan’s Fed and the American Boom
Shadow: Five Presidents and the Legacy of Watergate
The Choice
The Agenda: Inside the Clinton White House
Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA 1981–1987
Wired: The Short Life and Fast Times of John Belushi
The Brethren (with Scott Armstrong )
The Final Days (with Carl Bernstein)
All the President’s Men (with Carl Bernstein)
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Index
A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.
ABC News, 211, 312
Abdullah, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, 266, 269, 270, 271
Abrams, Elliott, 84, 85, 86
Achille Lauro, 102
ACID GAMBIT, 91, 136, 139, 145, 170
AC-130 gunship airplanes, 139, 174, 185
Addington, David S., 71, 160, 233
Adelman, Ken, 58–59
AH-64 Apache helicopters, 141, 328, 376
Air Force, U.S., 74–80, 235, 286
“blue curtain” of, 74
Dugan’s firing as chief of, 290–96
Herbits’s memo on, 74
Panama invasion plans role and, 140
in Persian Gulf preliminary offensive plan, 305, 313–14
Air Force Association, 295
Akhromeyev, Sergei, 40, 112
Amnesty International, 343, 354
Aquino, Corazon, coup attempt against, 146–52
Arab League, 206, 225, 252–53
Arens, Moshe, 370
Armitage, Richard, 47, 126
Army, U.S.:
attitude toward Cold War of, 106
Delta squadrons of, 88, 89, 90, 91, 102, 136, 137, 138, 172, 185, 193
Herbits’s memo on, 73
Marine Corps competition with, 163–64, 209
new technology of, 349, 369
in Persian Gulf preliminary offensive plan, 305
post-Vietnam changes in, 154–155
Rangers, 164, 174, 184, 185
see also Reserves, U.S. Army
Aronson, Bernard W., 83, 116
Aspin, Les, 76, 80, 127, 231, 303, 318, 322, 345
Associated Press, 279
Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 313
Atwood, Don, 73, 295, 370
AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System) radar planes, 242, 278, 369
Aziz, Tariq, 335, 338, 354, 361
AZTEC PACKAGE, 172
Bahrain, 283, 287
Baker, James A., Ill, 58, 108, 110, 130, 147, 199, 213, 215, 247, 253, 267, 312, 313, 318, 320, 324, 358, 360, 364, 365, 366, 374
Aziz’s meeting with, 354, 355, 361
Bush’s appointment of, 46
Cheney’s Defense Secretary appointment and, 62, 63, 65
Crowe on, 81
Desert Shield international coalition and, 321
on Desert Shield troop-doubling announcement, 323
diplomatic solutions favored by, 300, 316, 338, 353
on Iraq-U.S. relations, 211
on Kuwait invasion response, 225, 226, 254, 262
Panama invasion decision and, 86, 162, 169
PDF coup attempt and, 124, 125
Persian Gulf position of, 316, 321
Persian Gulf War buildup and, 41, 42 proposed meeting between Saddam and, 335–37, 338, 345, 353, 354
UN war authorization and, 333–335
on U.S. hostages in Iraq and Kuwait, 316, 317
Bandar bin Sultan, Prince, 251, 324, 337, 345, 360, 368
on Arab composure, 244
on Bush’s growing determination, 350–51
as Fahd-Bush go-between, 239–241, 242–46, 254–56, 258–259, 266, 270, 271, 274–75, 278, 335–36, 361–62, 370
in Kuwait invasion buildup, 213–214, 215
as Saddam-Bush go-between, 199–204
on U.S.-Arab cultural misunderstanding, 336, 370
on U.S. offer for meeting with Saddam, 335–36
Barr, William P., 356–57
Bathurst, Sir Benjamin, 235
Batjer, Marybel, 126
Battalion 2000: 133, 141
Bazoft, Farzad, 201, 203
Beirut, 175
Bessmertnykh, Alexander, 53
B-52 bombers, 369
biological weapons, 201, 286, 331
black weapons programs, 327–328
BLIND LOGIC, 86, 173, 189
BLUE SPOON, see Panama invasion
Brady, Nicholas, 56, 226
Brown, Harold, 80
Brown, Richard C., 160
Browning, Bishop Edmond, 366
B-2 Stealth bomber, 112
Bubiyan, 252
Buckley, William, 91, 137
Bunker Hill, U.S.S., 370
Bush, Barbara, 59, 280, 343, 350
Bush, George, 72, 82, 83, 213, 302, 373
Bandar as go-between for Saddam and, 199–204
cabinet appointments of, 46, 50, 51, 60, 64–65
at Camp David meeting on Kuwait invasion, 247, 251–52, 253
characteristics of, 105, 280, 302
Cheney on political memory of, 89–90
in Cheney’s firing of Dugan, 293, 295, 296
CIA’s anti-Saddam moves ordered by, 237, 282
CIA Panama operation authorized by, 140
congressional support sought by, 288–89, 337–39, 354, 355–358
Crowe on Persian Gulf policy of, 37
Crowe’s Senate testimony and, 332–33
as CIA director, 46, 50, 91, 267
Desert Shield troop-doubling announced by, 322–24
Desert Shield troop levels decided by, 36, 38, 41, 42, 318–20
as detail-oriented manager, 225
on drug war, 115–16
and first day of Desert Storm, 376
Gorbachev’s first meeting with, 53–55
growing determination of, 350–351
and heads of state, 315–16, 341
and House Republican leadership, 61
immediate response to Kuwait invasion by, 222–31
on Iraq’s human rights violations, 343–44
and Iraq’s pre-invasion buildup, 215, 221
on Iraq’s nuclear capability, 337
JCS Desert Shield meeting with, 340–41
in Kennebunkport, 112, 282, 283
Kuwaiti emir’s meeting with, 298
Kuwait invasion response of, 223, 224–25, 226, 228–29, 231, 234, 235, 237–38, 239
Kuwait liberation as goal of, 260–262, 265, 277, 281, 300, 302, 311, 312, 319
Kuwait liberation vowed by, 255
military exercises in Panama ordered by, 99, 104
on military response to Kuwait invasion, 225, 231
Muse rescue plan and, 136–37
National Security Directive ordered by, 353
National Security Directive signed by, 366
1988 campaign and, 47
Noriega’s capture sought by, 91
on Noriega’s surrende
r, 193
Panama coup advocated by, 92
in Panama invasion, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 192
in Panama invasion buildup, 84, 86, 87, 90, 135
Panama invasion decision and, 162, 163, 167–71, 172
Panama pre-invasion incidents and, 159
PDF coup attempt and, 122, 124, 128–29
Persian Gulf cease-fire declared by, 376
Persian Gulf offensive option considered by, 307–8
Persian Gulf preliminary offensive plan sought by, 303
Persian Gulf war decision of, 344–45, 362
personal alliances important to, 47, 57, 245
Philippines coup attempt and, 147, 150, 153
political nature of national-security decisions under, 81
Powell’s JCS chairmanship and, 110, 111, 112
Powell’s job offers from, 45–47, 49
public support for, 36, 312
Reagan appointees and, 46, 49, 68
Saddam-Baker meeting offered by, 335–36
Saddam personally attacked by, 282, 285
Saddam’s letter from, 354, 361
on Saddam’s peace promises, 203, 204
