Living Hell

by Michael C. C. Adams

42. Nathaniel Cheairs Hughes, The Pride of the Confederate Artillery: The Washington Artillery in the Army of Tennessee (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), pp. 250–51.

  43. National Archives, RG 153, case of George W. O’Malley, file no. MM 402; O.R., series 2, vol. 4, pp. 876–77, 885, 915.

  44. O.R., series 1, vol. 3, pp. 457–59, 433–35; Richard S. Brownlee, Gray Ghosts of the Confederacy: Guerrilla Warfare in the West, 1861–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986), p. 35; O.R., series 1, vol. 47, pt. 2, p. 33.

  45. Sparks, Inside Lincoln’s Army, pp. 388–99.

  46. Thomas P. Lowry, “Research Note: New Access to a Civil War Resource,” Civil War History 49, no. 1 (March 2003): pp. 56, 58; R. Gregory Laude, Madness, Malingering, and Malfeasance: The Transformation of Psychiatry and the Law in the Civil War Era (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2003), p. 44; National Archives, RG 153, case of F. M. Caldwell, file no. MM 890; case of Francois Wallenus, file no. MM 1054.

  47. Alfred Jay Bollet, Civil War Medicine: Challenges and Triumphs (Tucson, AZ: Galen, 2002), p. 377. Philip Burnham, “The Andersonvilles of the North,” in Robert Cowley, ed., With My Face to the Enemy: Perspectives on the Civil War (New York: Putnam’s, 2001), pp. 367–81, esp. 367; Larry M. Logue, To Appomattox and Beyond: The Civil War Soldier in War and Peace (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996), p. 71.

  48. Terry Winschel, “The Siege of Vicksburg,” Blue & Gray Magazine 20, no. 4 (Spring 2003): p. 48; Robert Knox Sneden, Eye of the Storm: A Civil War Odyssey (New York: Free Press, 2000), p. 4.

  49. Abner R. Small, The Road to Richmond: The Civil War Memoirs of Major Abner R. Small of the Sixteenth Maine Volunteers (1939, repr. New York: Fordham University Press, 2000), p. 157; Marszalek, ed., Diary of Emma Holmes, p. 282.

  50. John H. Brinton, Personal Memoirs of John H. Brinton: Civil War Surgeon, 1861–1865 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996), p. 301; Sneden, Eye of the Storm, pp. 197–98.

  51. Emmy E. Werner, Reluctant Witnesses: Children’s Voices from the Civil War (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), p. 99.

  52. Douglas, I Rode with Stonewall, pp. 251–52; Fletcher, Rebel Private, Front and Rear, p. 153.

  53. Susan Williams Benson, ed., Berry Benson’s Civil War Book: Memoirs of a Confederate Scout and Sharpshooter (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), p. 135; Sneden, Eye of the Storm, p. 172; Maud Carter Clement, Writings of Maud Carter Clement (Chatham, VA: Pittsylvania Historical Society, 1982), pp. 61–63.

  54. M. C. Gillet, The United States Army Medical Department, 1818–1865 (Washington, DC: Army Center of Military History, 1987), p. 267; O.R., series 2, vol. 6, pp. 158, 218; Speer, War of Vengeance, pp. 114–21.

  55. Clarence Poe, ed., True Tales of the South at War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), p. 143; J. K. Barnes, Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870–88), vol. 3, medical section, pp. 33, 42.

  56. Eric T. Dean Jr., Shook over Hell: Post-Traumatic Stress, Vietnam, and the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), p. 83.

  57. Sidney Lanier, Tiger-Lilies (1867, repr. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), pp. 182–83.

  58. Though accused of some intentional dramatization, John L. Ransom, John Ransom’s Andersonville Diary (1881, repr. New York: Berkley, 1988), still gives a good account of the gangs and their breakup.

  59. Walt Whitman, Memoranda during the Civil War: Civil War Journals, 1863–1865 (1875, repr. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2012), pp. 65–66.

  CHAPTER EIGHT. STATE OF THE UNION

  1. Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997), p. 186; James M. McPherson, Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: Knopf, 1982), p. 476; Larry M. Logue, To Appomattox and Beyond: The Civil War Soldier in War and Peace (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996), p. 107.

  2. Whitelaw Reid, After the War (New York: Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin, 1866), pp. 224, 360; Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, ed., The Journals of Josiah Gorgas, 1857–1878 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995), p. 167; Elizabeth Ravenel Harrigan, Charleston Recollections and Recipes: Rose P. Ravenel’s Cookbook (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1983), p. 68.

  3. William Preston Magnum II, “Disaster at Woodburn Farm: R. A. Alexander and the Confederate Guerrilla Raids of 1864–1865,” Filson Club Historical Quarterly 70, no. 2 (April 1996): pp. 177, 182.

  4. Lowell H. Harrison and James C. Klotter, A New History of Kentucky (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1997), pp. 150, 379–80; E. Merton Coulter, The Civil War and Readjustment in Kentucky (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1926), esp. pp. 400–401.

  5. Emmy E. Werner, Reluctant Witnesses: Children’s Voices from the Civil War (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), p. 148; Richard Harwell and Philip N. Racine, eds., The Fiery Trial: A Union Officer’s Account of Sherman’s Last Campaigns (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), p. 102; Donald Yacovone, ed., A Voice of Thunder: A Black Soldier’s Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), pp. 84–85.

  6. Richard Nelson Current, Those Terrible Carpetbaggers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), analyses the much-maligned agents of reform through the biographies of ten participants; John R. Neff, Honoring the Civil War Dead: Commemoration and the Problem of Reconciliation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), p. 105.

  7. See Edward Royce, The Origins of Southern Sharecropping (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), a nuanced analysis, and Kyle G. Wilkinson, Yeomen, Sharecroppers, and Socialists: Plain Folk Protest in Texas, 1870–1914 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2008), a case study of attempts to change peonage.

  8. Jackson Lears, “Divinely Ordained,” London Review of Books, May 19, 2011, p. 3; Neff, Honoring the Civil War Dead, p. 145.

  9. Andrew Hacker, writing in the New York Review of Books, September 27, 2012, p. 39.

  10. Hacker, New York Review, p. 39; Elizabeth Drew, “Determined to Vote!,” New York Review of Books, December 20, 2012.

  11. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974).

  12. Joseph T. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers (New York: Meridian, 1991), p. 209; Mark Ford, “Petty Grotesques,” London Review of Books, March 17, 2011, p. 27.

  13. Logue, To Appomattox and Beyond, pp. 112, 115–16; Also, Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987). On the Freikorps mentality, Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies, vol. 1: Women, Floods, Bodies, History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987).

  14. Michael Fellman, The Making of Robert E. Lee (New York: Random House, 2000), p. xiii.

  15. Bobby L. Lovett, “Memphis Riots: White Reaction to Blacks in Memphis, May 1865–July 1866,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 38 (Spring 1979): p. 12.

  16. Maris A. Vinovskis, ed., Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 144; George W. Williams, A History of the Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865 (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), p. 328; G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995), p. 69; also, Albert Boime, The Art of Exclusion: Representing Blacks in the Nineteenth Century (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990); Boston Daily Evening Traveler, quoted in David W. Blight, Beyond the Battlefield: Memory and the American Civil War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), pp. 176–77.

  17. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, p. 253.

  18. R. W. Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson (New York: Collier, 1965), p. 99; Susie King Taylor, A Black Woman’s Civil War Memoirs (1902, repr. New York: Marcus Wiener, 1988), p. 135; Tilden G. Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm: A Life of Thomas Wentworth Higginson (N
ew Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), p. 391.

  19. See Kenneth S. Stern, A Force upon the Plain: The American Militia Movement and the Politics of Hate (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996); James William Gibson, Warrior Dreams: Paramilitary Culture in Post-Vietnam America (New York: Hill & Wang, 1994); James Ridgeway, Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazis, Skinheads and the Rise of a New White Culture, 2nd. ed. (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1995).

  20. Jonathan Kozol, Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America (New York: Crown, 2005), pp. 18–19, 21–25; Peter Whoriskey, “On 50th Anniversary ‘Little Rock Nine’ Get a Hero’s Welcome,” Washington Post, September 26, 2007; Darryl Pinckney, “Invisible Black America,” New York Review of Books, March 10, 2011, pp. 33–35.

  21. Daniel Brook, “Unreconstructed: The Federal Government Builds a Shrine to Its Archenemy,” Harper’s Magazine (May 2012): pp. 40–41.

  22. Stephen B. Oates, A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1994), p. 376; Carl R. Fish, “Back to Peace in 1865,” American Historical Review 24 (1919): p. 440; Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber, Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 257.

  23. David Williams, A People’s History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom (London: New Press, 2005), pp. 487–89.

  24. Cindy S. Aron, “ ‘To Barter Their Souls for Gold’: Female Clerks in Federal Government Offices, 1862–1890,” Journal of American History 67 (March 1981): p. 847. Stowe, “The Chimney Corner,” pt. 1, Atlantic 15 (January 1865): p. 113.

  25. Shirley A. Leckie, Elizabeth Bacon Custer and the Making of a Myth (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), p. 52; Aron, “Barter Their Souls for Gold,” p. 836.

  26. Mary E. Walker, HIT: Essays on Women’s Rights (Amherst, NY: Humanity, 2003), p. 6.

  27. Williams, A People’s History of the Civil War, pp. 1, 484–85; Kenneth M. Stampp, And the War Came: The North and the Secession Crisis, 1860–61 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950), p. 298.

  28. Fred A. Shannon, “The Homestead Act and the Labor Surplus,” American Historical Review 41 (1936): pp. 650–51.

  29. Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (New York: Russell and Russell, 1986), p. 370; John G. Sproat, “The Best Men”: Liberal Reformers in the Gilded Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 211.

  30. Barnet Schecter, The Devil’s Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (New York: Walker, 2005), pp. 368–69; Robert V. Bruce, 1877: Year of Violence (1959, repr. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1989), pp. 91–92, 200; Vinovskis, ed., Toward a Social History, p. 169; Richard Severo and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America’s Soldiers Came Home—from Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York: Touchstone, 1990), p. 177.

  31. Schecter, Devil’s Own Work, pp. 109–10; Vinovskis, ed., Toward a Social History, p. 132; Ben Macintyre, The Napoleon of Crime: The Life and Times of Adam Worth, Master Thief (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), p. 259; Matthew Josephson, The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861–1901 (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962), pp. 4, 32.

  32. J. Matthew Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War: The Home Front (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1994), pp. 101–3; also Ray Ginger, Age of Excess: The United States from 1877–1914, 2nd. ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1975); and Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (Boston: Beacon, 1955).

  33. Sproat, “The Best Men,” p. 246; Charles R. Williams, ed., Diary and Letters of Rutherford Birchard Hayes, 5 vols. (Columbus: Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1922–1926), vol. 4, pp. 278, 374, 383.

  34. Clara Barrus, ed., The Heart of Burroughs’s Journals (1928, repr. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1967), p. 166; Brooks D. Simpson, Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861–1868 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), p. 262.

  35. John Russell Young, Around the World with General Grant (New York: American News Company, 1879), vol. 1, pp. 158–59; E. L. Doctorow, The Waterworks (New York: Random House, 1994), pp. 14–15.

  36. Walt Whitman, Democratic Vistas, and Other Papers (1888, repr. St. Clair Shores, MI: Scholarly Press, 1970), p. 11; Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age (1873, repr. New York: New American Library, 1969), pp. 137–38.

  37. George R. Agassiz, ed., Meade’s Headquarters, 1863–1865: Letters of Colonel Theodore Lyman from the Wilderness to Appomattox (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1922), pp. 152, 186–87, 207.

  38. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams: An Autobiography (1918, repr. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961), p. 264; Henry Adams, Democracy: An American Novel (Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz, 1882), pp. 20, 273; also, George M. Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York: Harper and Row, 1965).

  39. Twelve Southerners, I’ll Take My Stand: The South and the Agrarian Tradition (1930, repr. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006); David Cole, “Thirty-Five States to Go,” London Review of Books, March 3, 2011, pp. 15–16.

  40. Roy P. Basler, et al., eds., The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953–55), vol. 6, p. 500; also, Brian R. Dirck, Lincoln & Davis: Imagining America, 1809–1865 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001), p. 212.

  41. Jackson Lears, Rebirth of a Nation: The Making of Modern America, 1877–1920 (New York: Harper, 2009), pp. 15–16.

  42. Michael A. Bellesiles, Arming America: The Origins of a National Gun Culture (New York: Knopf, 2000), pp. 406, 434; Michael C. C. Adams, “A Note on the Military Engagement at Lexington, Massachusetts, on April 19, 1775,” Perspectives in History 14 (1998–99): pp. 26–39; also Richard Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000).

  43. Bellesiles, Arming America, pp. 436–37, 440; William Graham Sumner, “What Our Boys Are Reading,” Scribner’s Monthly, March 1878, pp. 681–84.

  44. Otto L. Bettmann, The Good Old Days—They Were Terrible (New York: Random House, 1974), p. 87; Betty Rosenbaum, “The Relationship between War and Crime in the U.S.,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 30 (1940): pp. 725–26. Abbott, “Crime Wave of 1865–70,” p. 215; Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Boston: Little, Brown, 1995).

  45. Logue, To Appomattox and Beyond, pp. 87–88; Abbott, “Crime Wave of 1865–70,” pp. 225, 227; William C. Davis, The Cause Lost: Myths and Realities of the Confederacy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), p. 91; Richard S. Brownlee, Gray Ghosts of the Confederacy: Guerrilla Warfare in the West 1861–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986), pp. 240–44; James A. Ramage, Rebel Raider: The Life of General John Hunt Morgan (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), pp. 238–39; Carl W. Breichan, Sam Hildebrand: Guerrilla (Wauwatosa, WI: Pine Mountain Press, 1984), p. 154.

  46. Daniel E. Sutherland, The Expansion of Everyday Life 1860–1876 (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), pp. 219–20; Susan S. Kissel and Margery T. Rouse, eds., The Story of the Pewter Basin and Other Occasional Writings: Collected in Southern Ohio and Northern Kentucky (Bloomington, IN: T.I.S. Publications, 1981), pp. 62–63.

  47. Dean Latimer and Jeff Goldberg, Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium (New York: Franklin Watts, 1981), p. 180; Theodore Zeldin, An Intimate History of Humanity (New York: HarperCollins, 1994), p. 231.

  48. John William DeForest, Miss Ravenel’s Conversion from Secession to Loyalty (1867, repr. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1969), pp. 520–21; Ira M. Rutkow, Bleeding Blue and Gray: Civil War Surgery and the Evolution of American Medicine (New York: Random House, 2005), p. 317.

  49. Alfred Jay Bollet, Civil War Medicine: Challenges and Triumphs (Tucson, AZ: Galen, 2002), p. 160; Maggie Davis, The Far Side of
Home (New York: Macmillan, 1963), pp. 305–14; W. H. Belknap, History of the Fifteenth Regiment, Iowa Veteran Volunteer Infantry (Keokuk, IA: R. B. Ogden & Son, 1887), p. 644; Fiammetta Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree: Malaria and the Quest for a Cure That Changed the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), p. 186.

  50. Joselyne Rey, The History of Pain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 151. For the quotation on addiction, John Mann, Murder, Magic, and Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 182; Rudolf Schmitz, “Friedrich Wilhelm Serturner and the Discovery of Morphine,” Pharmacy in History 27, no. 2 (1985): pp. 67–68; Joseph J. Woodward, in Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870–88), vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 750.

  51. Bollet, Civil War Medicine, pp. 159–60; William L. Barney, The Making of a Confederate: Walter Lenoir’s Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 88; Colin Murray Parkes, “Psycho-Social Transitions: Comparison between Reactions to Loss of a Limb and Loss of a Spouse,” British Journal of Psychiatry 127 (1975): pp. 204–10.

  52. Scott Allen, “The Enduring Cost of War,” Boston Globe, February 13, 2006; John McMurray, Recollections of a Colored Troop (Brookville, PA, 1916), p. 62.

  53. Eric T. Dean Jr., Shook over Hell: Post-Traumatic Stress, Vietnam, and the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), p. 137; R. Gregory Laude, Madness, Malingering, and Malfeasance: The Transformation of Psychiatry and the Law in the Civil War Era (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2003), pp. 187–88; Albert Deutsch, The Mentally Ill in America: A History of Their Care and Treatment from Colonial Times, 2nd rev. ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949), pp. 229–45; Vinovskis, Toward a Social History, p. 170.

  54. John D. Seelye, “The American Tramp: A Version of the Picaresque,” American Quarterly 15 (1963): p. 543.

  55. Thomas P. Lowry, The Story the Soldiers Wouldn’t Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 1994), p. 174; Rosenbaum, “War and Crime in the U.S.,” p. 729.