by Julie Greene
5.Todd, Story of the Exposition, pp. 343, 348; the Markham quotation is in Elizabeth Platt Deitrick, Best Bits of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition and San Francisco (San Francisco: Galen, 1915), p. 64; Roger Lea MacBride, ed., West from Home: Letters of Laura Ingalls Wilder, San Francisco, 1915 (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), p. 63.
6.Sir Edward Grey, Twenty-Five Years (1925), vol. 2, ch. 18, cited in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). Grey’s comment was made on the eve of World War I.
7.Hall’s quotation is in The Legacy of the Exposition: Interpretation of the Intellectual and Moral Heritage Left to Mankind by the World Celebration at San Francisco in 1915 (San Francisco: Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, 1916), p. 80.
8.“No Canal Trip for Wilson,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 4, 1915, p. 7; “Mammoth Fleet Will Pass Canal with President,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Jan. 10, 1915; “Panama Parade by War Vessels of Five Nations,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Jan. 14, 1915, p. 7.
9.“Panama—the Silver Lining in the Clouds of War,” Current Opinion 57 (1914), p. 210; “Two Openings,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Aug. 15, 1914, p. 6; “The European War and the Panama-Pacific Exposition—Monumental Contrast,” Current Opinion 58 (1914), p. 315. For other commentary on the canal and World War I, see “The Mastery of Peace,” New York World, reprinted in Chicago Daily Tribune, Aug. 17, 1914, p. 6; “The Panama Canal and World History,” Outlook 111 (1915), p. 59.
10.Elizabeth Kittredge Parker, Panama Canal Bride: A Story of Construction Days (New York: Exposition, 1955), pp. 80–81; for population figures, see Census of the Canal Zone, February 1, 1912 (Mount Hope, C.Z.: ICC Press, 1912), p. 16; William R. Scott, The Americans in Panama (New York: Statler, 1913), ch. 16; Frederic J. Haskin, The Panama Canal (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Page, 1913), p. 315; “Panama Canal Open in a Month,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Sept. 20, 1913, p. 15.
11.Parker, Panama Canal Bride, p. 85.
12.Goethals to Mallet, July 10, 1913, FO 288/150, Miscellaneous Consular Correspondence, 1913; J. H. Kerr (secretary to the government of Bengal) to the secretary to the government of India, Department of Commerce, March 30, 1912, FO 371/1417; and Mallet to Grey, July 17, 1912, FO 371/1417: all Foreign Office Records, The National Archives, Pew, U.K.; “No Work for Americans in Costa Rica,” Canal Record 7, Nov. 5, 1913, p. 99.
13.Mallet to Grey, Oct. 28 and 30, 1912; Sydney Olivier (governor, Jamaica) to Lewis Harcourt (secretary of state for the colonies, London), May 9, 1912; Leslie Probyn (governor of Barbados) to Mallet, Sept. 30, 1912: all Political Correspondence, Panama, Foreign Office Records, FO 371/1417.
14.Mallet to Grey, Aug. 21, 1913; Mallet to Grey, received Sept. 30, 1913; Mallet to the governor of Jamaica, Sept. 8, 1913; Mallet to Grey, Nov. 8, 1913: all Political Correspondence, 1913, Foreign Office Records, FO 371/1703. For examples of complaints about unemployed West Indians facing arrest, see, for example, W. B. Letvole to Honorable Sir, Sept. 23, 1914, and especially no author to Mallet, received Sept. 26, 1914: both Miscellaneous Consul Records, 1914, Foreign Office Records, FO 288/160. See also Probyn to Harcourt, Consular Records, Panama, 1913, Foreign Office Records, FO 369/604.
15.Carla Burnett, “ ‘Are We Slaves or Free Men?’ Labor, Race, Garveyism, and the 1920 Panama Canal Strike” (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2004), pp. 2–4; John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903–1979 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 88–89.
16.John Barrett (director general of the Pan American Union), memo for the media about the Panama Canal, Sept. 20, 1912, FO 371/1417; Mallet to Grey, Nov. 8, 1913, FO 371/1703: both Political Correspondence, Panama, Foreign Office Records.
17.Charles T. Cox to Harcourt, April 20, 1912, Political Correspondence, Panama, 1912, Foreign Office Records, FO 371/1417.
18.Cox to Harcourt, April 20, 1912; K. J. E. Swayne (governor of British Honduras) to Harcourt, May 7, 1912; Mallet to Grey, Oct. 28, 1912; Mallet to Olivier, April 15, 1912; Mallet to Probyn, Oct. 30, 1912: all Political Correspondence, Panama, 1912, Foreign Office Records, FO 371/1417; Mallet to Grey, Nov. 8, 1913, Political Correspondence, Panama, Foreign Office Records, FO 371/1703.
19.“Emigration of Laborers Continues,” Canal Record, Aug. 12, 1914, p. 513; Collazos, “Cities of Panama,” p. 252.
20.Interview notes taken by Bonham Richardson in Barbados during 1982, in author’s possession; see also Bonham Richardson, Panama Money in Barbados, 1900–1920 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985).
21.“Panama Canal Open in a Month,” p. 15; “Wilson Blows Up Last Big Barrier in Panama Canal,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 11, 1913, p. 1; “Will Blow Open Big Canal Today,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 10, 1913, p. 1; see also McCullough, Path Between the Seas, pp. 605–7.
22.Moore to Ira Bennett, Oct. 10, 1913, PPIE Records, box 59, “Panama Canal” folder.
23.Parker, Panama Canal Bride, pp. 81–83.
24.“The Panama Canal Officially Opened,” New York Times, Aug. 16, 1914; “Canal Opened to Traffic of World Ships,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Aug. 16, 1914.
25.Harry A. Franck, Zone Policeman 88: A Close Range Study of the Panama Canal and Its Workers (New York: Century, 1913), pp. 311–14. For other reminiscences of the Canal Zone, see Winifred Lewellin James, A Woman in the Wilderness (New York: George H. Doran, 1916), pp. 94–103.
26.Alfred Charles Richard Jr., The Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, 1870–1990 (New York: Garland, 1990), p. 235. Hostetter’s Stomach Bitters advertisement (n.d.), “X-mas Greetings” from Santa Claus (postmarked 1909), and “The Kiss of the Oceans” (n.d.): all postcards in author’s possession.
27.Richard, Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, pp. 237, 232; “Designates Thursday, Nov. 27, as Day for Thanksgiving,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 24, 1913, p. 11; “What the Panama Canal Will Do for the World,” Current Opinion 56 (1914), pp. 230–31, quoting from the Manufacturer’s Record.
28.Ralph Emmett Avery, The Greatest Engineering Feat in the World at Panama: Authentic and Complete Story of the Building and Operation of the Great Waterway—the Eighth Wonder of the World (New York: Leslie-Judge, 1915), pp. 253–56. For similar reckonings of the spatial transformation wrought by the canal, see Willis J. Abbot, Panama and the Canal in Picture and Prose (New York: Syndicate, 1914), pp. 384–87; Haskin, Panama Canal, esp. ch. 30, “A New Commercial Map,” pp. 347–57.
29.Theodore Roosevelt, “The Panama Canal,” in The Pacific Ocean in History: Papers and Addresses Presented at the Panama-Pacific Historical Congress Held at San Francisco, Berkeley, and Palo Alto, California, July 19–23, 1915, ed. H. Morse Stephens and Herbert E. Bolton (New York: Macmillan, 1917), p. 150.
30.Avery, Greatest Engineering Feat in the World at Panama, pp. 253–56.
31.William Gorgas, “The Conquest of the Tropics for the White Race: President’s Address at the Sixtieth Annual Session of the American Medical Association, June 9, 1909,” Journal of the American Medical Association 52, no. 25 (1909), pp. 1967–69.
32.“The Americanization of Panama,” Independent, Feb. 25, 1909, pp. 429–30. In a similar vein, Frederick Palmer exulted in the Chicago Daily Tribune about the marvelous impact of American occupation: “American Rule Vivifies Panama: Health, Peace, and Prosperity Are Brought to the Little Republic,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 4, 1909. See also “Gorgas’s Conquest of Disease: The Marvelous Cleaning Up of the Canal Zone Means Occupation of the Tropics by the White Race,” New York Times, Sept. 22, 1912.
33.“Wants Free City in Panama Zone,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 29, 1913, p. 20; C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, “Panama, a Field for American Enterprise,” Independent 67 (1909), pp. 910–15; C. H. Forbes-
Lindsay, “Opportunities for Americans in Panama,” Lippincott’s Magazine, Oct. 1911, pp. 492–95.
34.The unnamed American diplomat is cited in George H. Blakeslee, “The Results of
the Panama Canal on World Trade,” Outlook 111 (1915), pp. 490–97; for the French government’s study, see “Canal Will Make U.S. Trade Power,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 28, 1913, p. 7; for an analysis similar to Blakeslee’s, see Theodore P. Shonts, “The Value of the Panama Canal,” World’s Work, April 1914, pp. 704–7; Edward Marshall, “European War Opens South America’s Big Market to Us,” New York Times, Aug. 23, 1914.
35.Walter B. Stevens, A Trip to Panama: The Narrative of a Tour of Observation through the Canal Zone, with Some Account of Visits to Saint Thomas, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba, by the Commercial Clubs of Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, February 18th–March 14th, 1907 (St. Louis, 1907), p. 233; see also Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, Trade Expansion Tour: Panama Canal, Jamaica, Havana, and Southern Points: February 14 to March 9, 1913 (Cincinnati: Printed by Tom Jones, 1913). Analyses of the impact the canal would have on the commerce of the United States abounded. See, for example, Agnes C. Laut, “Preparations on the Pacific for Panama,” Review of Reviews 44 (1911),
pp. 705–13; Irving Fisher, “Some Probable Economic Effects of the War,” New York Times, Aug. 30, 1914, p. SM4; “Effect on Trade Routes Discussed by London Times Man,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Oct. 19, 1913, p. A2.
36.On the canal and world peace, see, for example, Shonts, “Value of the Panama Canal”; Alfred T. Mahan, “The Panama Canal and Sea Power in the Pacific,” Century Magazine 82 (May–Oct. 1911), pp. 240–48.
37.“Panama and a New United States,” World’s Work, Dec. 1913, pp. 132–33. For other attempts to
analyze the impact the canal would have on the relationship between the United States and the world, see “The Panama Canal and Its Relation to the World,” Steam Shovel and Dredge, Sept. 1914, pp. 751–54.
38.Richard, Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, pp. 230–31; for Thompson’s essay, see “What the Panama Canal Will Do for the South,” Leslie’s Weekly 112 (1911), pp. 384–400; Westerners also saw the canal as crucial to their future. See Zoeth Skinner Eldredge, The Key to the Pacific (San Francisco, 1906); and Richard, Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, p. 231. The GAR and the UCV were fraternal organizations for veterans who served in the Union and Confederate Armies, respectively, during the Civil War.
39.O. Henry was born William Sydney Porter in Greensboro, North Carolina, in 1862. In 1897 he began serving a sentence in the penitentiary for embezzlement and while there began writing short stories. After his release he changed his name to O. Henry, moved to New York City, and became a prolific and very popular short story author. This information comes from http://www.online-literature.com/o_henry/; O. Henry’s story “Two Renegades” may also be accessed online at http://www.literaturecollection.com/a/o_henry/117/.
40.Notes from a speech given by Charles Moore during his Eastern trip, PPIE Records, box 13; the Hoover comment is quoted in Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, p. 208.
41.Avery, Greatest Engineering Feat in the World at Panama, pp. 353, 384.
42.San Francisco Labor Council and Building Trades Council to Moore, Aug. 22, 1912; P. H. McCarthy, resolution passed by Asiatic Exclusion League, n.d.: both PPIE Records, box 36.
43.See particularly the documents in folders 1 and 2, box 36, PPIE Records.
44.Schmidt to Moore, April 28, 1913, PPIE Records, box 9, folder on complaints.
45.Thomas Sammons, Oct. 14, 1912, PPIE Records, box 36, folder 9. See also the two folders on relations with Japan and the Alien Land Law in PPIE Records, box 63.
46.See the “Underground China” folder, PPIE Records, box 23; Shehong Chen, Being Chinese, Becoming Chinese American (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), ch. 3; Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, p. 229; Todd, Story of the Exposition, vol. 2, p. 358.
47.William Lipsky, San Francisco’s Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia, 2005), p. 67; Juliet James, Sculpture of the Exposition Palaces and Courts: Descriptive Notes on the Art of the Statuary of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco (San Francisco: H. S. Crocker, 1915); or see online at http://www.books-about-california.com/Pages/Sculpture_of_the_Exposition/The_End_of_the_Trail.html. Another popular sculpture of a Native American was Edward Berge’s Scalp, which shows an exultant, beast-like man waving a human scalp in the air. See Lipsky, p. 67. See the Web site of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum for pictures of the sculpture: http://www.nationalcowboymuseum.org/g_trai_high.html.
48.Todd, Story of the Exposition, vol. 2, p. 375; Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, p. 228; Lipsky, San Francisco’s Panama-Pacific International Exposition, p. 83.
49.Secretary of the Hawaiian Promotion Committee, complaint to the PPIE, PPIE Records, carton 9, “Hawaiian Village”; Todd, Story of the Exposition, vol. 2, p. 352.
50.Ewald and Clute, San Francisco Invites the World, pp. 67–99.
51.Deitrick, Best Bits of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition and San Francisco, p. 3.
52.Haskin, Panama Canal, p. 375.
53.James, Sculpture of the Exposition Palaces and Courts, accessed online at http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/scipt10.txt; A. Stirling Calder, The Sculpture and Mural Decorations of the Exposition (San Francisco: P. Elder, 1915). James concluded, “The Fountain embodies the mood of joyous, exultant power and exactly expresses the spirit of the Exposition. . . . [It suggests] ‘The Power of America rising from the Sea.’ ”Another example of the canal inspiring the architecture of the fair could be seen in the Court of the Sun and Stars, where two more sculptural fountains, according to Frederic Haskin, depicted the rising and setting of the sun to present the theme of “the world united and the land divided.” Juliet James noted that the sculpture The Rising Sun, which again presented a nude American man with arms outstretched and taut muscles, represented “the new light occasioned by the opening of the Panama Canal.”
54.Robert Goldstein to PPIE Pageant Committee, April 27, 1913; George L. Hutchin to Louis Levy (chief of publicity, PPIE), Oct. 21, 1913: both PPIE Records, box 21, folder 2.
55.Stafford was a supreme court justice for the District of Columbia. His poem “Panama Hymn” is in PPIE Records, box 19, “Poems and Songs” folder. See also Charles K. Field (editor, Sunset magazine) to Joseph M. Cumming (executive secretary, PPIE), Aug. 28, 1913, PPIE Records, box 19.
56.“Bryan Talks at World’s Fair on Keeping the Peace,” San Francisco Examiner, July 6, 1915.
57.“Prepare Against War: Roosevelt; Blood on Our Hands if We Fail,” San Francisco Examiner, July 22, 1915; “We Must Have Fighting Edge: Roosevelt,” San Francisco Examiner, July 22, 1915. As if unable to resist continuing his argument with Roosevelt, Bryan addressed three thousand people at a Congregational church in San Francisco just days after Roosevelt had visited to repeat his call for world peace. Bryan referred to Roosevelt’s speech as “useless” and cried out, “The big stick was not mentioned by Christ at all.” In fact, he declared, “The trouble is you can’t find a soft voice with a big stick. If a man . . . gets a big stick he loses his soft voice.” See “Bryan Hits at Colonel and Big Stick,” San Francisco Examiner, July 26, 1915.
58.The quotation by Goethals is from Legacy of the Exposition, p. 68.
59.Ewald and Clute, San Francisco Invites the World, p. 98.
60.Moore to Bennett, Feb. 1, 1915; Bennett to Moore, Feb. 2, 1915: both PPIE Records, “Foreign Pavilions: Panama” folder.
61.Speech of Don J. E. Lefevre, n.d., PPIE Records, box 31, “Special Events” folder.
62.Todd, Story of the Exposition, vol. 2, pp. 150–51; Panama Canal Exhibition Co., “Specification and Discription of Reproduction of Panama Canal,” PPIE Records, box 95, “Panama Canal Concession.”
63.Jack Burroughs, “Learn While You Laugh,” n.d., newspaper clipping, vol. 10 of clippings, PPIE Records.
64.“More Than 50,000 Visit Zone Canal,” San Francisco Call, Feb. 26, 1915; see also “Miniature Canal Is Exposition Feature,” San
Francisco Bulletin, Feb. 24, 1915: both vol. 10, newspaper clippings, PPIE Records.
65.MacBride, West from Home, p. 37; Elizabeth Gordon, What We Saw at Madame World’s Fair (San Francisco: Samuel Levinson, 1915), pp. 82–83; Charlotte Perkins Gilman, “The Gorgeous Exhibition,” Forerunner, May 1915, p. 121.
66.“Sing Swan Song at Panama Fair,” San Francisco Examiner, Dec. 5, 1915.
EPILOGUE
1.Joseph Bucklin Bishop and Farnham Bishop, Goethals, Genius of the Panama Canal: A Biography (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930), pp. 371–401. Other prominent ICC officials who served in the war included William Gorgas (as surgeon general of the Army), S. B. Williamson, and R. E. Wood.
2.Carla Burnett, “ ‘Are We Slaves or Free Men?’ Labor, Race, Garveyism, and the 1920 Panama Canal Strike” (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2004), pp. 2–4; John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903–1979 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 88–89.
