by Julie Greene
3.“United We Stand,” Workman, April 26, 1919; “Cold Facts, but Warm Thoughts,” Workman, Oct. 18, 1919. On the postwar mobilization by West Indian workers, see also Burnett, “ ‘Are We Slaves or Free Men?’ ” pp. 2–4.
4.Burnett, “ ‘Are We Slaves or Free Men?’ ” pp. 1–27; Major, Prize Possession, pp. 92–96.
5.Major, Prize Possession, pp. 227–28.
6.On diplomacy with Panama during these decades, see J. Michael Hogan’s excellent The Panama Canal in American Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986), esp. pp. 68–75. Eisenhower’s quotation is on p. 74. On the expropriation of the Suez Canal by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, consult William Roger Louis and Roger Owen, eds., Suez 1956: The Crisis and Its Consequences (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).
7.Hogan, Panama Canal in American Politics, p. 73; emphasis added to the quotation by the Zonian representative. See also Major, Prize Possession, pp. 331–34; and Walter LaFeber, The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 142.
8.Major, Prize Possession, pp. 335–36; Hogan, Panama Canal in American Politics, p. 76; LaFeber, Panama Canal, pp. 137–40; John Lindsay-Poland, Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the U.S. in Panama (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003), p. 86. For an example of the “utopian” lifestyle of Zonians at mid-century, see Philip Harkins, “Panama: This Is America—This Week,” Los Angeles Times, reprinted in the New York Times, June 30, 1946, p. D8.
9.Major, Prize Possession, pp. 340–44.
10.Sol M. Linowitz to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, May 2, 1977, White House Central File, Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, at http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/education/panama/document04.pdf (accessed April 24, 2007). For analysis of this and related arguments, see LaFeber, Panama Canal. Congressman Bowen’s comment about “striped-pants boys” is a reference to career diplomats in the State Department and is quoted in Alfred Charles Richard Jr., The Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, 1870–1990 (New York: Garland, 1990).
11.Linowitz to Vance, May 2, 1977; Hogan, Panama Canal in American Politics, pp. 87–88.
12.Flood to Carter, White House Central Files, Jan. 27, 1977, Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, at http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/education/panama/document01.pdf; Hogan, Panama Canal in American Politics; President Carter to senator, April 1978, Staff Secretaries File, Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, at http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/education/panama/document16.pdf. Adam Clymer, Drawing the Line at the Big Ditch: The Panama Canal Treaties and the Rise of the Right (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008), makes an argument similar to Hogan’s about the link between the conservative movement and the Panama treaties. Clymer’s book appeared too late for me to consult it fully before sending my book to press.
13.William Schneider is quoted in Hogan, Panama Canal in American Politics. Hogan’s source for the Schneider comment is “Behind the Passions of the Canal Debate,” reprinted from the Washington Post; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Panama Canal Treaties, U.S. Senate debate, 1977–78, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., pp. 3309–10; see also LaFeber, Panama Canal, pp. 217–27. On assumptions that opponents of the canal were uninformed, see George Gallup, “Support for Panama Treaties Increases with Knowledge,” Oct. 23, 1977, vertical file, Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, at http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/education/panama/document11.pdf.
14.Information in this and the following paragraphs is from the author’s interview with Helen Greene, May 18, 2007; and “The Wooing of Senator Zorinsky; or, Love’s Labors Lost, a Washington Comedy of Manners,” Time, May 27, 1978.
15.Robert A. Pastor (Latin American specialist on the National Security Council) to associate press secretary for the National Security Council Jerry Schecter and press secretary Jody Powell, Sept. 7, 1977, Jody Powell Press Files, Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, at http://www.jimmycarter library.org/education/panama/document07.pdf; “Americans in Canal Zone Sadly Witness End of an Era,” New York Times, Oct. 1, 1979, p. A1.
16.Lindsay-Poland, Emperors in the Jungle, pp. 103–11.
17.Ibid., pp. 112–20; Michael R. Gordon, “Ordered by Bush: Alternative Government Sworn,” New York Times, Dec. 20, 1989, p. A1. “A Transcript of Bush’s Address on the Decision to Use Force in Panama,” New York Times, Dec. 21, 1989, p. A19.
18.Lindsay-Poland, Emperors in the Jungle, pp. 116–21; R. W. Apple, “War: Bush’s Presidential Rite
of Passage,” New York Times, Dec. 21, 1989, p. A1; “Fires and Helicopters Transforming Panama
City,” New York Times, Dec. 21, 1989, p. A23; Andrew Rosenthal, “16 Americans Dead; General Is in Hiding,” New York Times, Dec. 21, 1989, p. A1; “Excerpts from Briefings on U.S. Military Action
in Panama,” New York Times, Dec. 21, 1989, p. A20; James Brooke, “U.S. Denounced by Nations Touchy About Intervention,” New York Times, Dec. 21, 1989.
19.“Panama Canal Sees the Last of the Stars and Stripes,” New York Times, Dec. 31, 1999, p. A10. The Times referred to the Zone in this article as “this former outpost of American military and engineering might.” See also Gustavo Gorriti, “Running Away from History,” New York Times, Dec. 14, 1999, p. A1.
20.“To Cheers, Panama Takes Over the Canal,” New York Times, Jan. 1, 2000, p. A16; “A Century Ends in Panama,” New York Times, Dec. 18, 1999, p. A22; “Panama Canal Sees the Last of the Stars and Stripes.”
21.“Panama Canal Sees the Last of the Stars and Stripes”; “A Canal Celebrity Honors Unheralded Workers,” New York Times, Dec. 14, 1999, p. A4.
22.The New York Times editorial team called the decision of the Clinton administration not to attend the official ceremony “a shabby way to treat a monumental human achievement created at the dawn of this century.” See Adam Clymer, “Mirror on the Past: Canal’s Fate Reflects Shift by U.S.,” New York Times, Dec. 15, 1999, p. A14; “Asia Moves In On the Big Ditch,” New York Times, Dec. 19, 1999, p. WK3; “Bush Willing to ‘Liberate’ Panama Canal,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Jan. 8, 2000, p. 6.
23.Notes from a journal kept by the author during the Panama Canal Crystal Harmony cruise in
Feb. 2003.
24.Harry A. Franck, Zone Policeman 88: A Close Range Study of the Panama Canal and Its Workers (New York: Century, 1913), p. 312.
25.This and the following paragraphs describing conversations that took place during the cruise are from the author’s journal kept during Feb. 2002.
26.John Hall, “The Canal Builders,” in Panama Roughneck Ballads (Panama and Canal Zone: Albert Lindo, Panama Railroad News Agency, 1912), pp. 34–38.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
____________
MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS
Belisario Porras Archives. Sección de Gobierno y Justicia. University of Panama, Panama City.
District Courts of the United States. Records of the Panama Canal Zone, Record Group 21. U.S. National Archives Building, Washington, D.C.
Embajada de los Estados Unidos en Panamá. Expediente de los disturbios del 4 de julio de 1912 y 1915 en Cocoa Grove. Archivos de Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama City.
Foreign Office Records. The National Archives, Kew, England, United Kingdom.
George Washington Goethals Papers. Manuscript Division. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Isthmian Canal Commission Records. Record Group 185. U.S. National Archives, College Park, Maryland.
Legación de los Estados Unidos en Panamá. Correspondencia. Archivos de Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama City.
Legación de Panamá en Washington. Correspondencia. Archivos de Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama City.
National Civic Federation Records. Manuscripts and Archives Division. New York Public Library, New York City.
Panama Collection of the Canal Zone Library-Museum. Manuscript Division. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
&nbs
p; Panama-Pacific International Exposition Records. Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley.
T. B. Miskimon Papers. Special Collections. Ablah Library, Wichita State University.
GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
Annual Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904–1915.
Census of the Canal Zone, February 1, 1912. Mount Hope, C.Z.: ICC Press, Quartermaster’s Department, 1912.
Hearings Before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the House of Representatives, on the Isthmian Canal. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1906.
Hearings Before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the House of Representatives, on the Panama Canal. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908.
Hearings Before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the House of Representatives, on the Panama Canal. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1909.
Hearings Before the Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations, in Charge of Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill for 1907. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1906.
Hearings Concerning Estimates for Construction of the Isthmian Canal for the Fiscal Year 1911. Conducted on the Canal Zone by the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives. Washington,
D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1910.
Investigation of Panama Canal Matters: Hearings Before the Committee on Interoceanic Canals of the United States Senate in the Matter of the Senate Resolution Adopted January 9, 1906, Providing for an Investigation of Matters Relating to the Panama Canal, Etc. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907.
Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Certain Papers to Accompany His Message of January 8, 1906. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1906.
Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Report of the Special Commission Appointed to Investigate Conditions of Labor and Housing of Government Employees on the Isthmus of Panama. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908.
The Panama Canal: Hearings Before the Committee on Interoceanic Canals. Senate. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1912.
The Panama Canal: Hearings Before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. House of Representatives. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1912.
Panama Canal—Skilled Labor: Extracts from Hearings of the Committees on Appropriations of the Senate and House of Representatives, Fiscal Years 1907 to 1915 Inclusive. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1914.
Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, with the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress, Dec. 5, 1905. House of Representatives. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1906.
NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES
The Canal Record
Century Magazine
The Chicago Daily Tribune
Cosmopolitan Magazine
Current Opinion
The Daily Gleaner ( Jamaica)
The Independent
International Socialist Review
La Estrella de Panamá
Lipincott’s Magazine
Machinists’ Monthly Journal
National Civic Federation Review
The New York Times
The Outlook
Review of Reviews
The San Francisco Examiner
Scribner’s Magazine
Steam Shovel and Dredge
The Survey
The Workman (Panama)
The World’s Work
BOOKS AND DISSERTATIONS
Abbot, Willis John. Panama and the Canal in Picture and Prose. New York: Syndicate, 1914.
Araúz, Celestino Andrés. Panamá y sus relaciones internacionales. Panama City: Universitaria, 1994.
Arnold, David. The Problem of Nature: Environment, Culture, and European Expansion. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.
———. The Tropics and the Traveling Gaze: India, Landscape, and Science, 1800–1856. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006.
Avery, Ralph Emmett. The Greatest Engineering Feat in the World at Panama: Authentic and Complete Story of the Building and Operation of the Great Waterway—the Eighth Wonder of the World. New York: Leslie-Judge, 1915.
Ballantyne, Tony, and Antoinette Burton, eds. Bodies in Contact: Rethinking Colonial Encounters in World History. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005.
Bederman, Gail. Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Bellamy, Edward. Looking Backward: 2000–1887, reissue. New York: Signet Classics, 2000.
Bender, Thomas. A Nation Among Nations: America’s Place in World History. New York: Hill and Wang, 2006.
Benedict, Burton. The Anthropology of World’s Fairs: San Francisco’s Panama Pacific International Exposition of 1915. London: Scolar, 1983.
Benson, Susan Porter. Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890–1940. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986.
Bigelow, Poultney. Seventy Summers. New York: Longmans, Green, 1925.
Bishop, Joseph Bucklin, ed. Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1919.
Bishop, Joseph Bucklin, and Farnham Bishop. Goethals, Genius of the Panama Canal: A Biography. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930.
Boag, Peter. Same-Sex Affairs: Constructing and Controlling Homosexuality in the Pacific Northwest. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
Boyce, William D. United States Colonies and Dependencies: The Travels and Investigations of a Chicago Publisher. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1914.
Bray, Wayne D. The Common Law Zone in Panama: A Case Study in Reception. San Juan, P.R.: Inter American University Press, 1977.
Browne, Edith A. Panama. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1913.
Bullard, Arthur. Panama: The Canal, the Country, and the People. New York: Macmillan, 1911.
Burnett, Carla. “ ‘Are We Slaves or Free Men?’ Labor, Race, Garveyism, and the 1920 Panama Canal Strike.” Ph.D. dissertation. University of Illinois at Chicago, 2004.
Burnett, Christina Duffy, and Burke Marshall, eds. Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001.
Callahan, James Morton. An Introduction to American Expansion Policy. Morgantown: West Virginia University, 1908.
Calvo, Alfredo Castillero. Conquista, evangelización, y resistencia: Triunfo o fracaso de la política indigenista. Panama: Mariano Arosemena: Instituto Nacional de Cultura, 1995.
———, ed. Historia general de Panamá. Panama City: Comité Nacional del Centenario de la República, 2004.
Cameron, Charlotte. A Woman’s Winter in South America. London: Stanley Paul, 1911.
Casanovas, Joan. Bread, or Bullets! Urban Labor and Spanish Colonialism in Cuba, 1850–1898. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998.
Chatfield, Mary A. Light on Dark Places at Panama. New York: Broadway, 1908.
Chaudhuri, Nupur, and Margaret Strobel, eds. Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1992.
Chauncey, George. Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940. New York: Basic Books, 1995.
Choy, Catherine Ceniza. Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003.
Conniff, Michael L. Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985.
———. Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance, 2nd ed. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001.
Cooper, Frederick, and Ann Laura Stoler, eds. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1997.
Croly, Herbert. The Promise of American Life, 1909. http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=117114&:pageno=1.
Cyphers, Christopher J. The National Civic Federation and the Making of a New Liberalism, 1900–1915. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002.
Dalton, Kathleen. Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life. New York: Knopf, 2002.
Davis, Raymond Allan. “West Indian Workers on the Panama Canal: A Split Labor Market Interpretation.” Ph.D. dissertation. Stanford University, 1981.
Delevante, Michael. Panama Pictures: Nature and Life in the Land of the Great Canal. New York: Alden Brothers, 1907.
De Lisser, Henry. Jamaicans in Colón and the Canal Zone. Kingston, 1906.
Donadio, William D. The Thorns of the Rose: Memoirs of a Tailor of Panama. Colón, Republic of Panama: Dovesa, S.A., 1999.
Esenwein, George R. Anarchist Ideology and the Working-Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Ewald, Donna, and Peter Clute. San Francisco Invites the World: The Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1991.
Ferrer, Ada. Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868–1898. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
Findlay, Eileen J. Suárez. Imposing Decency: The Politics of Sexuality and Race in Puerto Rico, 1870–1920. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999.
Forbes-Lindsay, Charles Harcourt. Panama and the Canal To-Day. Boston: L. C. Page, 1910.
Franck, Harry A. Zone Policeman 88: A Close Range Study of the Panama Canal and Its Workers. New York: Century, 1913.
Frederick, Rhonda A. “Colón Man a Come”: Mythographies of Panama Canal Migration. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2005.
Fuentes, Vicente Díaz. La clase obrera: Entre el anarquismo y la religión. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1994.
Gandásegui, Marco A., ed. Las clases sociales en Panamá. Panama: Del Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos, 1993.
