The Canal Builders
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on living conditions in the Zone, 195–96, 199, 206, 222, 223
on police practices, 139
on prostitution, 196, 197, 198, 258, 259
and Roosevelt, 196, 197, 201, 203, 216, 223, 258
U.S. government response to, 197–98, 199, 258
on U.S. military in Philippines, 193
Bishop, Farnham, 60
Bishop, Joseph Bucklin, 57, 60, 196, 314–15
Black, Mary and Courtney, 262–63
Blackburn, Joseph, 169, 268, 279, 284, 436n2
blacksmiths, 30, 46, 81, 82, 94, 96, 105–6, 127, 128
Blakeslee, George, 349
Boswell, Helen Varick, 242–43
Bowen, David, 374
Boyce, William:
on duty-free region, 349
United States Colonies and Dependencies, 27
Boyd, R. H., 102–5
Bray, Wayne, 274
Brecht, Bertolt, “A Worker Reads History,” xiii, 4, 388
Breshkovskaia, Ekaterina “Babushka,” 181
British Guiana, 342
British Honduras, 342
Brooke, George, 65, 90
Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees, 369
Brown, Nataniel, 420n22
Brownsville, Texas, riot in, 200
Bryan, William Jennings:
as anti-imperialist, 275, 361
and Cocoa Grove riots, 330
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 359–60, 361
as secretary of state, 330, 359
Bryce, James, 82, 305
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 377
Bucyrus steam shovels, 16–17, 56, 82
Bullard, Arthur:
early years of, 180–81
on Goethals, 182–83, 277–78
on government intervention, 182, 183, 189
and Progressive Era, 180, 184
and socialism, 180–83, 185, 277
visit to Canal Zone, 44, 181–83, 222
Bunau-Varilla, Philippe, 195
and canal completion, 344
and French project, 38–39
and New Panama Canal Company, 21, 22
and Panamanian independence, 21, 24
and U.S. treaty with Panama, 22, 24; see also Hay–Bunau-Varilla treaty
Burnett, Henry, 65
Busbey, Lucy, 113
Bush, George H. W., 379, 380
Bush, George W., 382–83
Butcher, John, 151
Cadogan, Claudine, 132
Calder, A. Stirling, 357–58
Callahan, James Morton (An Introduction to American Expansion Policy), 28, 407n25
Cameron, Charlotte, 71–72
Camp Elliott, U.S. Marines in, 70
“Canal Builders, The” (Hall), 5, 387
Canal Record, 83, 221
Canal Zone:
alcohol regulated in, 73, 120–21, 288
arrests in, 297–98
and Beeks’s report, 216–23
chief engineers’ roles in, 38
court system in, 196, 267–77, 301, 308, 344
creation of, 6, 26, 37, 47, 188, 189
death rate in, 132
deportation powers in, 75, 88, 91–92, 137
disease in, 40, 42–43, 78, 111, 130, 133, 135–37, 142, 189, 195
as duty-free region, 349
gambling in, 288–89
Goethals as first governor of, 57, 344
government evolving in, 37, 57–62, 223, 272
hospital nurses in, 111–16
immoral conduct in, 287–301
impact of canal in, 338–39, 362–63
infrastructure for, 47, 55, 69
laws of, 88–89, 91–92, 141, 420n29
literacy in, 423n8
living conditions in, 69–74, 85, 163, 195–96, 199, 206, 222, 223
model civilization as goal in, 224
murders in, 84, 267–68, 298, 299–301
new towns built in, 69, 125
police of, 84, 87, 139–40, 143–44, 148–49, 167, 169, 280–81, 282, 288, 304, 314, 317, 321, 322, 331, 413n26
population of, 38, 57, 396–98
postal system in, 102, 103–4, 105
in postconstruction era, 57
prisons in, 140, 269, 278–79, 283–87, 298, 301–2
prostitution in, 196, 197, 198, 258, 259, 290, 291, 293–97, 307, 310–11
religion in, 117–20, 156–57, 241–42
Roosevelt’s visit to, 15–21, 29, 31, 84, 199–205, 222
separation of Panama from, 37, 73, 225, 228–29, 293, 302, 307, 308, 313, 371
silver and gold system in, see silver and gold system
social issues in, 8–9, 188–90, 208–9, 210–24, 269, 371
Taft’s visits to, 204–5
towns abandoned in, 55, 69, 125, 338, 362–63
transfer to Panamanian control, 373–79, 381–83
U.S. acquisition of, 25, 271
U.S. Constitution applied in, 49, 88, 267–70, 271, 274–77
U.S. control of, 22, 23, 39, 73, 88, 182, 188, 224, 270–77
vagrancy laws in, 88–89, 91, 139–40, 141
visitors to, 37–39, 44, 45–46, 56, 69–72, 180–82, 205, 309, 350
white slavery in, 293–95, 310–11
worker migration to, 4, 29–35
Zonians in, 371–72, 375, 378
Cannon, Joseph, 205
Caribbean:
Afro-Caribbeans, 405n36
British Crown respected in, 51, 144
Caribbean: (cont.)
emigration tax in, 51
Garveyism in, 369
impact of canal project in, 32
paternalistic labor system of, 144
skilled workers from, 52, 128
U.S. efforts to control, 73
U.S. power in, 20, 22
worker facilities in, 47
worker migration from, 31, 32, 126, 160
workers recruited from, 30, 31, 51
workers returning home to, 43, 340, 343
see also West Indians
Carlyle, Thomas, 59
Carr, John Foster:
on empire building, 35, 187–88
police described by, 87
visit to Panama, 37, 60, 84–85, 87, 187–88
on Wallace’s resignation, 42
Carter, H. R., 116
Carter, Jimmy, 374, 375–77, 383
Carter, Rosalynn, 377
Chagres River, 46, 55
Chase, Stuart, 189
Chatfield, Mary, 108–10, 202, 203, 222–23
Chiari, Eduardo, 329
Chiari, Roberto, 372
Chicago Daily Tribune, 185, 199, 201, 205, 337
Chicago Defender, 103
China, U.S. exclusion laws and, 50, 96, 280, 354–55
Chinese workers:
desertion of seamen, 278–80
migration to canal project, 32
recruitment of, 48–51, 52
Christian, Charles, 288–89
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 378
civilization:
absence of, in tropical climates, 28, 59
and benevolent despotism, 59, 74
Latin American hopes for, 24
paternalistic Anglo views of, 18, 20, 28, 60, 225, 374, 375
U.S. creation of, 9, 28, 37
Civil War, U.S., 39
Clarke, Aaron, 134–35
clerical workers, 108, 114, 121, 127, 415
Clinton, Bill, 380, 382
Cocoa Grove, Panama City:
anti-Americanism in, 304, 314–15, 322–29
drug sales in, 314, 315
government investigations of, 323, 324, 326, 327, 329
Independence Day in, 303–4, 322–23, 329
July 4 riots in, 303–4, 322–31, 332–33, 359, 379
living conditions in, 310–13
murder in, 300–301
Panamanian politics reflected in, 316–22, 332–33
Panamanian vs. Zone police in, 30
4, 316–18, 322–23, 324
red-light district in, 73–74, 300, 310–11, 314
U.S. military personnel in, 303–4, 312, 313–14, 316, 319, 323–30, 379
Colombia:
and Guerra de los Mil Días, 320
laws of, 269, 272, 277
Panama controlled by, 6, 23
Panamanian independence from, 6–7, 16, 21–25, 305
sovereignty of, 22, 25, 320
U.S. negotiations with, 6, 21, 305
workers from, 50, 127, 164
Colón:
civil disturbances in, 315–16, 331
immorality in, 257, 302, 312
living conditions in, 70, 195, 198, 304, 313
population increases in, 309–10, 343
rebuilding of, 41
unemployed workers in, 340–41
Colón Hospital:
insane wards in, 136
nurses in, 111, 114–15
Colored Baptist Church, 102, 103
“Come Out a Merican Cut” (song), 156
Conniff, Michael, 132
Constitution, U.S., 49, 88, 267–70, 271, 274–77
Continental Divide, 2, 16, 44
Cook, Henry T., 306
Cooke, Tom, 104
Cooper, Mary and Dennis, 290
Cosmopolitan Magazine, 199
Coulson, Adolphus, 267–68, 269, 270
Cramer, Louise, 156, 260
Creel, George, 183
Cristobal:
creation of, 69
living conditions in, 70, 72
Croly, Herbert, 190
Cromwell, William Nelson, 206
CSA (Confederate States of America), 39
Cuba:
anarchism in, 174
Creoles in, 161
escape to, 140, 154
peninsulares in, 161
Rough Riders in, 19, 77, 84, 87
San Juan Hill in, 19
Spanish colony of, 18–19, 161, 162
Spanish workers recruited to Panama from, 50, 159, 161–62
and U.S. expansionism, 19, 190, 191, 368
U.S. presence in, 15, 228, 270, 276
U.S. wives in, 229
workers from, 50
yellow fever in, 39, 40
Culebra:
as ghost town, 338
living conditions in, 70
penitentiary at, 140, 283–87, 298
Culebra Cut:
completion of, 334, 344
construction projects in, 44–45, 56, 83, 129
digging of, 16, 44
laborers in, 45, 129, 161, 172, 411n67
landslides in, 45, 130
length of, 406n15
Roosevelt’s visit to, 202–3
visitors to, 44, 71
David, Samuel, 317
Davis, George, 88
Davis, Jefferson, 39
Davis, John, 103
Davis, Ralph, 304, 329
Davis, Richard Harding, 54
Day, Frank, 292–93
DeLeen, Carl, 325
Delevante, Michael, 204
Devine, Edward T., 189–90
Devol, Carrol A., 127, 152
Díaz, Pedro, 320
Dodge, Percival, 324, 329
Domingo de Obaldía, José, 318–19
Dorr, Rheta Childe, 242
Dorr v. United States (1904), 268, 275
Dottin, Alfred, 138
Douglas, Nehemiah, 131
Downes v. Bidwell, 275–76
DuBois, W. E. B., 165
Eagleson, Walter, 104–5
Easley, Ralph, 208, 216, 217
Egypt, Suez Canal and, 371
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 371
Elliott, R. B., 75–78, 84, 87
El Único, 176
Empire, Panama:
as ghost town, 338, 339
living conditions in, 70
engineers, railroad, 81, 84, 89, 90, 202
engineers, steam-shovel, 81, 82–83, 89, 94, 127, 202, 291–92, 346, 413n22, 414n33
Erimus, Alfred, 260
Ertl, Frank, 95
Europe:
European workers doing jobs of U.S. citizens, 93–95
European workers to be replaced by West Indians, 178, 179
skilled workers from, 52
socialism in, 185
as source of workers, 32, 34–35, 51–52, 122, 160–61, 164
West Indian workers to be replaced by Europeans, 52
worker facilities in, 47
workers returning home to, 343
and World War I, 2, 38, 336, 344, 345, 367
Exodusters, 100
Feuille, Frank, 272
Finlay, Carlos, 39
Fitzpatrick, C. C., 276
Fitzpatrick v. Panama Railroad Company, 276–77
Fleming, Robert, 372
Flood, Daniel, 372, 375
Forbes-Lindsay, C. H., 349
Ford, Gerald R., 373
Ford, Henry, 356
Fort Amador military base, 43
Fort Sherman, 125–26
France:
canal rights owned by, 6
efforts to build Panama Canal, 2, 3, 16, 20–21, 23, 26, 38–39, 46, 196, 309
housing built by, 41
investigation of living conditions by, 420n34
productivity of, 83
and Suez Canal, 2
worker experience in, 65, 82, 125, 128, 141, 142, 164
Franck, Harry:
arrival in Canal Zone, 67–68
on canal completion, 345, 384
on canal construction, 44, 45–46, 85
on Canal Zone boundary, 73
and Goethals, 62
interviews conducted by, 46
on national traits, 85, 419n11
on police matters, 139
on worker traits, 80
Fraser, James Earle (The End of the Trail), 355–56
Froude, James Anthony, 29
Fuentes, Carlos, 326
Furuseth, Andrew, 25
Gaillard, D. D., 54, 69, 147
Gamboa Dike, blowing up of, 343–44, 346
Garcia, Petra, 300
Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 166
Garvey, Marcus, 369
Garveyism, 369
Gatun Dam:
completion of, 38, 335, 338
construction of, 44, 55, 129
hydroelectric plant, 56
Gatun Lake:
flooding of, 38, 335, 338, 363
and lock operation, 56
towns submerged under, 55, 69, 70, 338
Gatun Locks, 55–56
General Electric, 56, 336
General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 212–13, 221, 227, 242–45
George, Henry, 180, 182, 186–87
Ghent, W. J., 87
Gilbert, Alice, 111–12, 117
globalization:
and international law, 25
roots of, 10, 349
Goethals, Effie Rodman, 53
Goethals, George Washington:
accomplishments of, 54
anarchist threat to, 176, 177
Army career of, 53
and Beeks’s report, 217, 221–22
and benevolent despotism, 58–62, 188, 301
biographies of, 60, 61
birth and early years of, 53
and canal completion, 344
as Canal Zone governor, 57, 344
as chief engineer, 38, 53, 368
court held by, 277–78
as ICC chairman, 54, 58
influence of, 54, 74
and labor unions, 61–62, 90–91, 98–99, 215
and living conditions, 69, 152
on moral conduct, 288, 289, 292, 293, 295, 297, 301–2
open-door policy of, 60–62
and Panamanian politics, 319
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 361
personal traits of, 53–54, 61, 269
perspective of, 3–4
and reduction in worker numbers, 335
>
reputation of, 210, 218
ruling and preserving order, 57–58, 60, 62, 183, 218, 283, 286, 302, 304, 314, 333
on silver and gold system, 65, 66–67, 68, 95, 99, 105–7, 121–22
and social issues, 182–83
and women’s lives, 229, 245–48, 264, 265–66
and worker grievances, 60–62, 89, 90–91, 95, 99, 105, 106–7, 135, 136, 143, 173, 210, 215, 280
and World War I, 368
gold and silver system, see silver and gold system
Goldman, Emma, 181
Gompers, Samuel, 86, 96
Goodwin, Rosa, 294
Gordon, Elizabeth, 365
Gorgas, Marie:
on Goethals, 60
on nature’s threats, 29
travel to Panama, 40
Gorgas, William:
on anarchists, 175
early years of, 39
family background of, 39
on Henry George, 187
on nurses’ uniforms, 112
and sanitation efforts, 39–42, 135–37, 237, 348
on taxation, 187
Gorgona:
flooding of, 338, 362
living conditions in, 70, 295
government:
benevolent despotism, 58–62, 74, 121–22, 188, 224, 301, 409n48
civil (democracy), 57–58, 88, 184
commission, 57
as employer, 208–9, 216
by executive orders, 57, 58
liberalism, 24, 59
military, 57, 88
paternalism of, 224
proper roles of, 10, 184, 205
socialist, 59, 180–83, 184–86, 189, 207–8, 224
government intervention, supporters of, 8, 10
Gowdy, Mary, 136–37
Grant, Ulysses S., 362
Gray, Cora and Jack, 253–54
Greece, workers from, 51, 160, 161, 168
Green, Prince George, 155
Greene, Helen, 376–77, 383–84
Grenada, worker migration from, 31, 126
Grey, Sir Edward, 336
Griffith, Samuel, 279
Guadeloupe, workers recruited from, 126
Guam, U.S. acquisition of, 19
Gudger, Hezekiah, 273–74
Guerra de los Mil Días (1899–1902), 320
Haiti, U.S. interventions in, 368
Halford, Frank, 325
Hall, G. Stanley, 337
Hall, John, 4–5, 10
“As It Was,” 312
“The Canal Builders,” 5, 387
“The Price of Empire,” 5
“Spickety Bill,” 291–92
Hamilton, Charles, 139–40
Hardie, J. Keir, 142
Harding, Chester, 368, 369, 370
Hart, Henry, 100–101
Haskin, Frederic, 357
Hawaii, as U.S. possession, 19, 22
Hay, John, 12, 21
Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, 111, 330, 377
and Colombian sovereignty, 22, 25, 320
and Republic of Panama, 22–25
U.S. rights under, 22–25, 270
Hayes, Oscar, 292–93
Haynes, Cecil, 381–82
Hearst, William Randolph, 18–19
Henry, O., 352
Herrick, Robert, 185