by Julie Greene
Hewitt, Abram, 187
Hicks, Clarence, 117
Hill, James J., 43
historical research, 9–10
Hofmeyr, Isabel, 11
Hogan, Michael, 204, 375
Hoover, Herbert, 353, 361
Houston, Frank, 298–99
Howard, Thomas, 324
Hunter, Robert, 181
ICC, see Isthmian Canal Commission
idealism, U.S. expressions of, 9
Independent, 195, 198
India:
official life in, 198
as source of laborers, 32, 52, 160, 340, 408n32
Inglis, William, 204
Insular Cases (1901–4), 268, 274, 275–76
International Brotherhood of Steam Shovel and Dredge Men, 83, 86
International Socialist Review, 189
Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC):
Cocoa Grove riot investigation by, 324
complaints of, 61
employment policies of, 93–99, 106, 122, 146, 153, 171–72, 341
Goethals as chairman of, 54, 58
housing built by, 40
judicial system formed by, 271–77
military members of, 54
paternalism of, 60, 146
population relocations by, 335, 340, 341
powers of, 41, 220, 221, 271, 273
reorganizations of, 41, 54, 58
and socialism, 180
and territorial jurisdiction, 317
and women’s complaints, 248–49
worker complaints to, 143
worker contracts with, 31, 80, 158
and worker recruitment, 48–49, 51, 158, 213, 307–8
worker reductions at canal completion, 340–42
and workers’ leisure time, 116–18, 120
and workers returning home, 340
Isthmian Historical Society, 130
Isthmus of Panama:
canal in, see Panama Canal
Colombian control of, 6
U.S. influence in, 74
Italy:
and anarchism, 168
workers from, 51, 160, 161, 162, 166
Jamaica:
laborers from, 148–49, 234, 237, 408n31
policemen from, 129
servants from, 212
skilled workers from, 65, 128, 129
worker migration from, 31, 126
workers in French canal project, 125
workers recruited from, 51
workers reluctant to return to, 341–42
workers returning home to, 43, 340, 343
see also West Indians
James, Juliet, 356, 357
James, William, 26, 185
James, Winifred:
on Cocoa Grove, 310–11
on election of 1912, 322
living conditions described by, 32, 69–72, 310–11
The Mulberry Tree, 69
Japanese exclusion laws, 354–55
Jefferson, Thomas, 11
Jim Crow practices:
in postal system, 102, 103–4, 105
and silver and gold system, 63, 101–4, 190
in U.S. South, 33, 100
Wilson’s extension of, 416n61
and Workman, 369
Johnson, Lyndon B., 373
Jones, David, 377
Judge, Margaret, 115–16
Kaplan, Amy, 9–10
Kidd, Benjamin, 348
The Control of the Tropics, 27, 40
Kipling, Rudyard, 235
Kissinger, Henry A., 373
Kittredge, Elizabeth, 34
Knight, Mrs. Benjamin, 264
Knox, Thomas, 264
Kramer, Philip, 84
Kyle, Osceola, 273
laborers:
Beeks’s observations on, 213–15
black men, 17
Chinese, 48–51
in Culebra Cut, 45, 129, 161, 172, 411n67
deportation of, 137, 142, 277–78
desertions of, 150, 215
discipline of, 87, 139, 141, 143–44, 269, 277–87, 298
displacement of, in canal completion, 340–42
erased from history, 2, 363, 364–65, 411n67
European, 32, 34–35, 51–52, 122, 160–61, 164
food for, 134, 148, 150, 151–52
gangs of men, 45, 129
government control of, 134–35
hardships of, 133–35, 143, 150, 215, 219
housing of, 134, 135, 151–53, 163, 170, 211, 219
imprisonment of, 142
injured on the job, 123–24, 132, 133, 137–38, 142, 163
and involuntary servitude, 49
life in the camps, 134–40, 150–51, 219, 225, 234–35
police treatment of, 143–44, 148–49, 278, 280–81
prisoners as, 283–87
in rainy season, 29, 45, 133–34, 135, 136, 142
recruitment of, 47–52, 158, 161–62, 437n32
segregation of, see silver and gold system
skilled, see workers
wages of, see silver and gold system
West Indian, see West Indians
white, 48, 50, 67
working conditions of, 143–44
work-related deaths of, 131–32, 235, 264
written memories of, 130–40, 155
labor unions:
and anarchism, 174
attempts to organize, 61, 76–78, 87, 89, 91–92, 283, 369
blacklisting of, 87, 88
building trades, 97–98
demands from, 89, 413n22
and Goethals, 61–62, 90–91, 98–99, 215
lobbying Congress, 92, 98
perks and privileges won by, 85, 86, 92
police spies vs., 76–77, 87–88, 91, 277
and progressivism, 207–8, 209, 221
and racial issues, 92, 97–98, 369–70
of skilled workers, 82–83, 89, 97–98
and socialism, 188–89
and social problems, 8
of steam-shovel engineers, 82–83, 86, 89
strikes and unrest, 48, 62, 76, 87, 88, 89–91, 94, 141, 368–70
Taft’s view of, 61, 91
LaFeber, Walter (The New Empire), 10–11
Lansing, Robert, 332
Latin America:
Americanization of, 348
civilization as goal of, 24
Garveyism in, 369
liberalism in, 24
as source of workers, 160, 161, 307
trade with, 350
U.S. efforts to control, 73, 190–91, 378
and U.S. invasion of Panama (1989), 380
workers moving to, at canal completion, 342
see also specific nations
Lecurrieux, Jules, 138
Lefevre, Don, 344, 362
Lefevre, Ernesto, 329
Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 2, 26, 195
Leuchtenburg, William, 190
Lewis, Keturah, 296–97
liberalism, 24, 59
Limon Bay, 55
Lincoln, Abraham, 101, 195
Linowitz, Sol, 374
Lodge, Henry Cabot, 18, 19, 193
Lopez, Aquilino, 175–76
Lyons, Minnie and Willis, 252–53
McClintic-Marshall, 55–56, 80, 123
McCullough, David (The Path Between the Seas), 3
McFarlane, James, 290
machinists, 46, 52, 81, 82, 84, 91, 95, 96, 128, 188, 233, 346
Machinists’ Monthly Journal, 188–89
McIlvaine, C. A., 63, 67
Mackay, William Andrew, 400n1
McKinley, William, 19, 275
McKinzie, Isaac, 123–24
McNeill, George E., 403n20
Magoon, Charles:
as Canal Zone governor, 64, 149, 259, 276
on family life, 259, 291
and silver and gold system, 64, 149, 410n54
Mahan, Alfred T., 350–51
Influence of Sea Power upon History, 18
Mallet, Cl
aude:
as British consul, 133, 165
and end of construction phase, 340, 341
and French project, 141, 142
and Spanish consul, 165–66
and United Fruit, 342
and West Indian workers, 133, 141–42, 340, 341, 342
Manifest Destiny, 12
Mann Act (1910), 294, 307
Markel, Jacob, 148
Markham, Edwin, 336
Marsh, Jacob, 142
Marsh, Richard, 319
Marshall, Edward, 350
Martinique:
laborers from, 234–35
skilled workers from, 65, 128, 129
women from, 150, 197, 198, 258–60
worker migration from, 31
workers recruited from, 126
see also West Indians
Mason, Charles, 112
May, W. H., 115
Mendoza, Carlos, 319, 320
Merwin, Samuel, 185
Mill, John Stuart, 60
“On Liberty,” 59
Miraflores Locks, 44
Miskimon, T. B.:
as Goethals’s investigator, 61, 91, 246–48, 250, 266, 281, 294
on labor unions, 91
on police actions, 281, 282, 286, 314
on prostitution, 294
on women’s complaints, 246–48, 250, 266
Mitchell, Henry, 326
Mitchell, John, 221
Montrose, Rose, 260
Moody, William, 48–49
Mooney, Virginia, 115
Moore, Charles:
and Alien Land Bill, 354–55
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 335, 353, 359, 362, 366
Moore, Crawford, 92
Morales, Eusebio, 330
Morrison, Frank, 376
Moscoso, Mireya, 381
Moya, Jose, 162
Murphy, A. T., 282
Murrell, Cleveland, 154, 343
Mutis Durán, Facundo, 273–74
Nahl, Perham, (The Thirteenth Labor of Hercules), xviii, 1, 2, 357, 365
National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), 354
National Baptist Union-Review, 102
National Civic Federation (NCF), 163, 207–9
Negrati, Angel, 159
Nevers, Haviland, 143
New Nationalism, 190
New Panama Canal Company, 21, 22
New Right, emergence of, 375
New York Times, 7, 25, 210, 221
Nicaragua, potential canal site in, 20
Nixon, Richard M., 373
Noriega, Manuel, 378–79
North, Oliver, 379
nurses, 34, 38, 64, 108, 111–15, 117, 121, 211, 213, 214, 289
Obaldía, José Domingo de, 318–19
O’Brien, John, 296
Oduber, Daniel, 378
Open Door Notes, 12
Operation Just Cause (U.S. invasion of Panama, 1989), 379–80
Operative Plasterers’ International Association, 97
Oriza, Andres, 299–300
Outlook, 35, 37
Owen, Madeline and Brady, 251–52
Owens, George, 279
Panama, Republic of:
Americanization of, 348–49
constitution of, 24
economy of, 309, 343
geography of, 28
immigration laws of, 49
independence from Colombia, 6–7, 16, 21–25, 305
international atmosphere of, 309–10
labor unrest in, 369–70
laws of, 269, 272, 273–74, 277, 292, 307
nationalists in, 25, 321–22, 371–74, 380
neocolonialism in, 73
officials in, 23–24
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 361–63
police of, 87, 149, 293, 304, 315, 316–18, 320, 321–28, 330–31, 369–70, 379
politics in, 316–22, 332–33
prostitution in, 311
racial hierarchy in, 171, 370
separation of Canal Zone from, 37, 73, 225, 228–29, 293, 302, 307, 308, 313, 371
skilled workers from, 52
social classes in, 24, 25, 234–36, 243, 245
social transformation of, 24
sovereignty of, 22, 73, 305, 307–8, 319–20, 331–33, 371–73, 380
streetcar system of, 306
student riots (1964) in, 372–73
tourism in, 309–10
transfer of power from United States to, 373–79, 381–83
tropical climate of, 28–29
unemployed workers in, 340–41
U.S. control over, 6, 22, 305, 332
U.S. entrepreneurship in, 308–9
U.S. governance in, 59–60, 73, 305–7
U.S. invasion of (1989), 379–80
U.S. military staging area in, 378
U.S. occupation of, 4, 21, 24, 88, 305, 372
U.S. right to intervene in, 22, 24, 320–22, 323, 330, 331–32, 367, 374
U.S. treaties with, 6, 22–25, 305, 320, 330, 331, 371, 374–79
women’s labor, 228
workers from, 50, 60, 66, 105, 127, 161
Panama Canal:
administration of, see Panama Canal administration
author’s lecture tour on, 383–85
books and periodicals about, 26–29
commercial impact of, 349–50
congressional investigations into, 86–87
construction of, see Panama Canal construction
corporate capitalism involved in, 56
critics of, 7
effect on U.S. military and foreign relations, 350–51
engineering successes in, 3, 4, 20, 56, 374
as engineering wonder of the world, 56
first ship through, 38, 344–45
French attempts to build, 2, 3, 16, 20–21, 23, 26, 38–39, 46, 196, 309
legacy of, 10, 11, 367–88
lock vs. sea-level design of, 38, 46–47, 54
maximum security for, 374, 377
mythology about, 2, 3
opening of, 2, 335, 344–45, 348
political motives behind, 20–22
public relations efforts in, 17, 86, 346–52
significance of, 10, 12, 335–36, 337, 346–51, 375
site for, 20–21
social impact of, 24, 32
testing locks of, 343
transfer to Panamanian control, 373–79, 381–83
workers needed for operation of, 339
Panama Canal administration:
chief engineers’ roles in, 38
difficulties of, 37
entire society created by, 26
joint U.S.–Panama, 379
managing workers, 46, 57, 335
U.S. relinquishing of, 378, 381–83
Panama Canal construction:
beginning of, 38
books and articles about, 184
chief engineers for, 38; see also Goethals, George Washington; Stevens, John; Wallace, John
completion of, 96–97, 99, 128, 183, 333, 334–35, 338–45
dangers of, 45, 130–34, 231
dynamite explosions in, 44, 45, 130
engineering challenges in, 38, 374
as first priority, 58, 74, 269, 271, 302
flooding of, 45
getting rid of excavated dirt in, 43–44, 55, 339
impact on Panama of, 309–10, 315
laborers in, 129
landslides in, 43, 45, 83, 130, 131
locks, 55–56, 82–83
mechanization of, 82
planning of, 47–53, 55, 368
prisoners working on, 283–87
productivity in, 83
as public works project, 26, 86
questions preparatory to, 26
scandal attached to, 194–95, 196, 216– 17
silver and gold system in, 62–69
Panama Canal construction: (cont.)
steam shovels in, 16–17, 45, 55, 82–83, 89, 130, 202, 334
strikes and
labor unrest in, 94
subcontracting of, 55–56, 80
U.S. control of, 59–60, 368
U.S. rights to, 22, 23, 24
visiting observers of, 37–39, 82, 181–83, 187, 209–10, 224
worker migration to, 29–35
worker recruitment for, 47–52, 86
Panama Canal Zone, see Canal Zone
Panama City:
Cocoa Grove section of, see Cocoa Grove
living conditions in, 257, 304, 310, 312, 313
population increases in, 309–10, 343
prostitution in, 310–11
rebuilding of, 41
travel to, 70
unemployed workers in, 340–41
U.S. fumigation of, 306
Watermelon Riot in, 313
Panama Defense Forces (PDF), 379
“Panama Hymn” (Stafford), 358–59
Panama-Pacific International Exposition (PPIE), San Francisco (1915), 1–2, 347, 353–66
anthem of, 358–59
and Asian exclusion, 354–55
construction of, 353–54
end of, 366
exhibits in, 356–57
famous men connected with, 359–62
model canal in, 363–65
Nahl’s poster for, xviii, 1, 2, 357, 365
national pride reflected in, 2, 38, 333, 353
and Native Americans, 356
opening of, 335
and Republic of Panama, 361–63
themes of, 335–36, 353, 357–58, 361
and United States as world power, 335–36, 337
workers ignored in, 2, 363, 364–65, 411n67
and World War I, 336–38, 353
Panama Railroad:
accidents on, 83
administration of, 58, 206, 220
building of, 16, 20, 23
as central artery, 43, 44
court cases concerning, 276–77
employees of, 46, 80, 83–84, 89, 90
ownership of, 426n1
relocation of, 54, 338
segregated cars of, 46
in silver and gold system, 66, 67, 68
traffic on, 83
workers traveling on, 44
Park, LeRoy, 217
Parker, Elizabeth, 239–40, 255, 339, 344
Parkinson, Constantine, 125–26, 130–31, 133
Parks, Amos, 157, 158
Peart, James, 290
Perez, Bernardo, 175–77
Pershing, John, 368
Pestaña, Angel, 171
Peters, Eugenia, 263
Philippines:
court system in, 268, 270, 275, 277
independence sought by, 5, 20, 191
tropical climate in, 28
U.S. acquisition of, 19, 191
as U.S. colony, 6, 22, 223, 228, 270, 272, 276
U.S. military use of torture in, 192, 194, 195
war with United States, 5–6, 12, 20, 87, 191–95
women in, 228, 229
Phillips, Howard, 382
Plato, 59
Plessy v. Ferguson, 275–76
policemen, 61, 65, 87–88, 127, 128, 129, 133, 139, 140, 143, 151, 153, 167, 169, 260, 277, 278, 280, 282, 286, 288, 294, 295, 314–18, 322, 324–29, 331, 332, 338, 413n26, 418n6
