by Julie Greene
Porras, Belisario, 320–21, 330, 331–32, 345
Potous, Juan, 165–67
Price, Jennings, 329, 331
“Price of Empire, The” (Hall), 5
progressive movement, 180–225
and Beeks, 207–23, 225
and canal project, 206–23
and election of 1912, 102–3
and labor unions, 207–8, 209, 221
and racial issues, 189–90
and reformers, 180, 181, 184, 187–88, 189, 223–25
and Roosevelt, 17, 102, 190
and socialism, 180–85, 186, 189, 207–8, 224
and social issues, 8, 188–90, 195–97, 208–9, 210–24
and taxes, 186–87
on universal conscription, 185–86
and U.S. empire, 191–95, 206–23, 224
utopian visions of, 185, 224
and War of 1898, 190
Providence Journal, 220
Puerto Rico:
court system of, 277
U.S. acquisition of, 19, 191
U.S. interventions in, 368
as U.S. possession, 15, 228, 270, 272, 276
workers from, 67
Pulitzer, Joseph, 19
Quijano, Julio, 326–27
quinine, availability of, 40
race:
Asian exclusion laws, 50, 96, 354–55
and citizenship, 68–69, 72, 93, 95, 98, 99–107, 164, 170
and Cocoa Grove riots, 328
and competition, 47
Garveyism, 369
health and safety connected to, 133–34
hierarchies of, 72–74, 85–86
interracial relationships, 292–93
Jim Crow practices, 33, 63, 100, 101–2, 103, 190, 369, 416n61
and jury trials, 268
and labor unions, 92, 97–98, 369–70
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 354–56
and Plessy v. Ferguson, 275–76
and police treatment, 143–44
and progressive reformers, 189–90
segregation, see segregation
shades of whiteness in, 64, 160, 163, 165
silver and gold system, 62–69, 86, 95–96, 101–9, 160, 190
slavery, 49, 138
in social Darwinism, 11, 353, 355
and Spanish laborers, 159–60, 163–64, 169–78
and tropical climates, 27–28, 63, 99, 132, 271
in U.S. colonies, 28
and violence, 33, 328
and YMCA membership, 69, 107, 118
“zones” of, 72
see also African Americans; West Indians
Ragsdale, Harry, 95
Rainey, Henry T., 206
Ramírez, Luis Francisco, 327
Ramsey, Paul, 385–86
Reagan, Ronald, 373, 375, 376, 384
Reed, H. D., 88
Reed, Walter, 39
Rees, Granville, 296
Republican Party, 101, 102–3, 192
Richard, Alfred, 351
Richards, Adina, 256
Richardson, Bonham, 132, 153, 256, 343
Richardson, Gardner, 198
Ricketts, Melvina, 264–65
Riding, Alan, 378
Riis, Jacob, 404n21
Ritter, Jorge, 381
Rodriguez, Desiderio, 299–300
Roosevelt, Edith, 16
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 361
Roosevelt, Theodore:
on canal history, 348
committees and boards named by, 46
critics of, 6–7, 54, 196–99, 203, 206, 216–17, 223
on deportation powers, 88
early years of, 17–19
expansionist views of, 17–20, 26, 35, 275
influence of, 24, 54, 194
and journalists, 179
and labor unions, 215, 221
and laws in Canal Zone, 270, 272–73, 278
manliness as focus of, 17–18, 19
and mayoral campaign, 187
and negotiations with Colombia, 6, 21
and New Nationalism, 190
and Panamanian independence, 21
Roosevelt, Theodore: (cont.)
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 360–61, 365
personnel selected by, 39, 41, 53, 54, 58, 87
and Philippine war, 192–94
political career of, 18, 19, 102
as president, 2, 19, 104, 184, 199
and progressivism, 17, 102, 190
public relations efforts of, 19, 193–94, 199, 202–6, 211, 220, 222, 223, 258, 365, 375
and racial issues, 50
and reformers, 179, 196, 216–17
reputation of, 36
and Rough Riders, 19, 77, 84
and sea power, 18, 20, 350–51, 360
self-promotional skills of, 15, 19
on silver and gold system, 66–67, 68, 92, 93, 423n3
and steam shovels, 16–17, 202, 203
and treaty with Panama, 22, 25
visit to Canal Zone, 15–21, 29, 31, 84, 199–205, 222
on war preparations, 18, 360–61
and worker grievances, 89, 141
and workers’ leisure time, 118
and workers’ wives, 227, 230
Root, Elihu, 193, 276, 318
Rough Riders, 19, 77, 84, 87
Rousseau, H. H., 54, 140, 293
Russell, Genevieve, 113–14
Russian Revolution (1905), 181
Rydell, Robert, 353
St. Kitts, workers from, 126
St. Lucia, workers from, 31, 65, 126
Sammons, Thomas, 355
Sanchez, Antonio, 35
Sanders, L. T., 98
Saxton, Evelyn, 315
Schneider, William, 375
Scott, Abel, 279
Scott, Leroy, 181
segregation:
of African Americans, 69, 99–107, 118, 121, 164
in commissaries, 134, 214, 221
in housing, 134, 135, 151–53, 163, 170, 211, 219
Jim Crow practices of, 33, 63, 100, 101–2, 103, 190, 369, 416n61
on Panama Railroad, 46
planning for, 47
in postal system, 102, 103–4, 105
and racial hierarchies, 72–74, 85–86
in silver and gold system, 62–63, 65–67, 101–4, 121, 160, 163–64, 190, 370
of West Indians, 65–66, 104, 170, 225
Settoon, J. W., 259
Shanton, George:
and Canal Zone police force, 84, 87, 148–49
and labor activism, 77, 78
and Panamanian politics, 319
on prisons, 285
and Roosevelt, 84, 200
and Rough Riders, 84, 87
on YMCA influence, 119
Sherrard, Ted, 32–33
Shonts, Theodore P.:
and public relations, 197
on Spanish laborers, 161
on West Indian laborers, 145, 146, 151–52
on worker nationalities, 47–48, 49, 50
Sibert, William, 54, 168
silver and gold system:
and Beeks’s report, 213–15
citizenship issues in, 63, 66–69, 92–99, 171–72, 127, 423n3
as control device, 62–69, 269
duration of, 370–71
efficiency as nonissue in, 68
evolving nature of, 368
and food, 150
and housing, 67, 218, 219
and labor unions, 89, 369–70
perks and privileges in, 118, 121–22, 150, 371
racial hierarchy in, 64–67, 68–69, 86, 95–96, 99–107, 160, 164, 171–72, 190
salaries and wages, 81–82, 85, 86, 89, 126–27, 128, 133, 143, 164–65, 341, 369, 370, 371, 410n54, 413n22
and segregation, 62–63, 65–67, 101–4, 121, 160, 163–64, 190, 370
semiwhite foreigners in, 64, 160, 163
Spanish workers in, 160, 163–64, 172
West Indians in, 64–66, 68, 95–96, 124, 129, 146, 164
<
br /> white foreigners in, 64, 66, 68, 93
white U.S. citizens in, 64, 65, 66, 67, 78, 81–82, 86, 92–99
Singer, Roland, 79–80
Skinner, Beresford, 31
slavery:
conditions compared to, 138
and Thirteenth Amendment, 49
Slifer, Hiram, 66
Slosson, Edwin, 198
Smith, Art, 359, 366
Smith, Francis, 297
Smith, Jackson, 66, 172, 218–20, 221–22
Smith, Jacob, 192, 193
social Darwinism, 11, 353, 355
socialism, 59, 180–83, 184–86, 188–89, 207–8, 224
“Somebody Dying Every Day” (song), 132
Spain:
anarchism in, 174
and Cuba, 18–19, 161, 162
food riots in, 174
Galicia in, 162–63, 171, 174
laws of empire in, 272, 273, 276
mass exodus from, 162–63
U.S. war with (1898), 5, 12, 15, 19, 20, 35, 161, 163, 171, 191, 206
Spanish-American War, 33, 206, 402n14; see also War of 1898
Spanish workers, 159–79
and anarchism, 160, 172, 174–78
deaths and injuries to, 163, 165–66
living conditions of, 165, 166, 168, 169
numbers of, 161, 167
and racial issues, 159–60, 163–64, 169– 78
recruitment of, 50, 51–52, 161–63
rioting and strikes by, 159–60, 167–68, 169, 172–74, 177, 178
in silver and gold system, 160, 163–64, 172
and Spanish consul, 165–67, 169
and West Indians, 52, 168–70, 172, 176, 178, 179
working conditions for, 163–68, 172–73
“Spickety Bill” (Hall), 291–92
Spiller, W. P., 307–8
Stafford, Wendell Phillips (“Panama Hymn”), 358–59
Steam Shovel and Dredge (trade union magazine), 72, 431n2
Stern, Harry, 298–99
Stevens, John:
as chief engineer, 38, 43–44, 47–53, 54, 55, 69, 217
early years of, 43
and Martinican women, 258–59
and public relations, 197, 198
resignation of, 50, 52–53
and Roosevelt’s visit, 201, 203
and West Indian laborers, 124, 145–46, 147, 161
and women job applicants, 108–9
and worker grievances, 89, 215
and worker hierarchies, 64, 65
and worker recruitment, 47–52
and workers’ leisure time, 118
Stokes, James G. Phelps, 181
Storey, Moorfield, 25
Suez Canal, 2, 26, 46, 337, 347, 371
Sullivan, J. G., 63–64
Sunset magazine, 359
Swinehart, R. L., 325
Szok, Peter, 23
Taft, Charles P., 206
Taft, William Howard:
and Beeks’s report, 216, 217, 219, 221, 242
on Canal Zone courts, 271, 274
critics of, 206
and election of 1912, 102
and labor unions, 61, 91
and NCF, 209
and Panamanian politics, 319
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 361
and public relations, 86, 103, 196, 197, 198
visits to Canal Zone, 204–5
and wages, 86
and worker grievances, 82, 89, 91, 96, 106
and workers’ leisure time, 116
Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 114
Taylorism, 114
teachers, 65, 108, 127, 128, 229, 418n6
Terán, Oscar, 274
Thatcher, M. H., 139, 177, 282, 287, 294
Thompson, T. P., 352
Todd, Frank Morton, 356
Torrijos, Omar, 373, 378
Torrijos-Carter Treaties, 374–79
Trinidad, workers from, 126
tropical climates:
and absence of civilization, 28, 59
alligator hunts in, 117
compared to Garden of Eden, 40
death rates in, 132
disease in, 29, 40, 52, 111, 133, 135–37, 189
housing in, 211
jungle in, 45
made safe for white men, 348
native immunities assumed in, 135
native indolence assumed in, 40, 48
rains in, 28–29, 40, 45, 133–34, 173
recreational opportunities in, 117
white men’s difficulties living in, 27–28, 37, 63, 75, 86, 89, 99, 132, 216, 271, 370
Tuan Fang, 50
Tyler, Ralph, 103
United Fruit Company (UFCO), 308, 342
United Nations Security Council, 373
United States:
anticommunism in, 372
canal as success of, 2–3, 10, 13
Chinese exclusion laws in, 50, 96, 280
citizens of, see U.S. citizens
colonies of, 5, 6, 12, 19, 27, 198, 351
congressional investigations in, 86–87, 88, 92, 197–98
Constitution of, 49, 88, 267–70, 271, 274–77
court system of, 271–77
democratic ideals of, 37
empire building by, 6, 9–13, 19–20, 26, 28, 35, 67, 191, 193, 207, 224, 270, 274, 275, 305, 368
expansionism of, 9, 11–12, 17–20, 26, 27, 28, 35, 187, 190–91, 205, 206, 224, 270, 275, 367, 368
immigrants to, 35–36
industrialization of, 10–11, 12, 20, 35, 56, 81, 184
national identity of, 3, 9, 10, 17, 351–52
national pride of, 3, 5, 7–8, 27, 37, 44, 71, 205, 230, 378
and Panama, see Panama, Republic of
Philippine war of, 5–6, 12, 20, 87, 191–95
public image of, 333
public relations efforts of, 17
Secret Service of, 88
social problems in, 8
tenement laws in, 213, 219
transfer of power to Panama, 373–79, 381–83
war with Spain (1898), 5, 12, 15, 19, 20, 35, 161, 163, 191, 206
as world power, 2, 5, 7–8, 10, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 35, 171, 224, 270, 335–36, 337, 350, 367
and world trade, 337, 351, 355
and World War I, 183, 367
U.S. Army
as auxiliary police force, 313–14, 316, 319
chief engineer from, 53
and Cocoa Grove riots, 323–29, 330–31, 332
entertainment venues for, 314, 315–316
increasing numbers in Canal Zone, 313
invasion of Panama (1989), 379–80
and Panamanian elections, 316, 319, 322
and Panamian police, 317–18, 330, 379
shipped out of Panama, 381
soldiers’ reasons to enlist in, 314
and transfer of power to Panama, 378
and Watermelon Riot, 313
U.S. citizens:
African Americans, 99–107, 121
and Cocoa Grove riots, 303–4, 314–15, 322–29, 330–31
death rates of, 132
displacement of, in canal completion, 340
living conditions for, 72, 225
movement to canal project, 32–33
replaced by West Indian workers, 94, 99
returning home, 343
rights of, 92, 95, 98, 99, 104, 121–22, 223, 268–70, 274–77, 299
in silver and gold system, 63, 66–69, 92–99, 127
skilled white workers, 46, 47, 52, 63, 80–81, 85–86, 92, 97
women, see women
Zonians, 371–72, 375, 378
U.S. Marines, 70, 90, 313, 314
and Cocoa Grove riots, 323–27, 332
and Panamanian elections, 321
and Panamanian police, 317, 320
shipped out of Panama, 381
and U.S. invasion of Panama (1989), 379–80
U.S. Navy:
and Panamanian police, 317, 318
&
nbsp; Roosevelt’s interest in, 18, 20, 350–51, 360
USS Louisiana, 15, 199, 200
USS Maine, 19
USS Oregon, 20
Vance, Cyrus, 377
Van Hardeveld, Jan, 226, 230
Van Hardeveld, Rose:
becoming accustomed to the land, 236, 237
children of, 226, 236
homemaking challenges of, 233–34, 237, 238–39
hysteria of, 236–37
moving to Canal Zone, 226, 230
and other ethnic people, 234–36, 237, 238, 239, 255
patriotism of, 230–31
and project completion, 334
Vega, Julia, 300–301
Viguerie, Richard, 375
Virden, J. C., 77, 84
Waite, William, 296–97
Waldron, Bea, 31–32
Wallace, John:
accomplishments of, 41
America Across the Seas, 27
as chief engineer, 38, 41, 54, 55
problems faced by, 41–42
resignation of, 42, 53, 79
and worker grievances, 76, 77, 78–79, 89, 148
and workers’ leisure time, 116
Walling, William English, 181
“Want One Woman” (song), 261
Ward, Alice, 310, 327
War Industries Board, 368
War of 1898:
aftermath of, 5, 270, 274
beef scandal in, 206
and ethnic prejudices, 163, 171
and expansionism, 12, 19, 35, 190, 191
and Philippine-American war, 5–6, 12, 87, 191–95
and progressivism, 190
and Roosevelt, 15, 19, 77, 84
Rough Riders in, 19, 77, 84, 87
and U.S. as world power, 5, 12, 19, 20, 35, 171
and U.S. Navy, 20
U.S. territories obtained from, 5, 12
U.S. victory in, 5, 12, 19, 35
workers and police as veterans of, 76–77, 84, 87, 161
Washington, Booker T., 273
Watermelon Riot (1856), 313
Weitzel, George, 67
Wells, H. G., 185
Westerman, George, 157
West Indians:
and alcohol, 154
appeals to ICC from, 143
arrests of, 297–98
changing jobs, 146, 153–54, 158
common-law relationships of, 259, 262, 290–91
complaints to British consul by, 141–42, 263–64, 265, 341
control of, 278–79, 289–90, 369
as craftsmen/artisans, 144, 164
cultural differences among, 129
deaths of, 132, 133, 135–36
diagnosed as insane, 136–37, 141
and disease, 135–37, 142
displacement of, in canal completion, 339–42, 369
housing for, 69, 70, 129, 135, 151–53, 170
indignities suffered by, 138–40, 141–44, 150–55
injured on the job, 123–24, 131, 133, 142
West Indians: (cont.)
as laborers, 45, 46, 48, 49, 51, 52, 122, 126, 128–30, 144–58, 234–35
and labor unions, 97–98, 369–70
legal system used by, 124, 262–63
life strategies of, 124–25, 147, 150–55, 158
