The Code

by Margaret O'Mara

  33. SRI’s Values and Lifestyles (VALS) program was relied upon heavily by Apple for its market research. See Macintosh Product Introduction Plan, October 7, 1983, M1007, Series 7, Box 13, FF 21, SU.

  34. Chiat/Day, Macintosh Introductory Advertising Plan FY 1984, November 1983, M1007, Series 7, Box 14, FF 1, SU; Michael Moritz, Return to the Little Kingdom: How Apple and Steve Jobs Changed the World (New York: The Overlook Press, 2009), 123.

  35. Haynes Johnson, “Election ’84: Silicon Valley’s Satisfied Society,” The Washington Post, October 10, 1984, M3.

  36. Patricia A. Bellew, “The Office Party is One Thing at Which Silicon Valley Excels,” The Wall Street Journal, December 21, 1984, 1.

  CHAPTER 17: WAR GAMES

  1. Jim Treglio, “Briefing Paper for Paul Tsongas,” July 28, 1983, Box 36B, FF 2, Paul E. Tsongas Collection, Center for Lowell History, University of Massachusetts Lowell (PT); John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1992); Frances FitzGerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).

  2. Alex Roland with Philip Shiman, Strategic Computing: DARPA and the Quest for Machine Intelligence, 1983–1993 (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2002), 83–95.

  3. Jim Treglio, “Briefing Paper for Paul Tsongas,” July 28, 1983, Box 36B, FF 2, PT; Reagan, “Address to the Nation on Defense and National Security,” March 23, 1983; Union of Concerned Scientists, “The New Arms Race: Star Wars Weapons,” Briefing Paper, October 1983, Cambridge Mass, PT. Useful discussion of pro- and anti-SDI campaigns and the role of the scientific community can be found in William M. Knoblauch, “Selling the Second Cold War: Antinuclear Cultural Activism and Reagan Era Foreign Policy,” PhD Dissertation, History, Ohio University, 2012.

  4. R. Jeffrey Smith, “New Doubts about Star Wars Feasibility,” Science 229, no. 4711 (1985), 367–68; Gary Chapman, “Dear Colleague,” undated (c. 1986), Silicon Valley Ephemera Collection, Series 1, Box 7, FF 12, SU; Catherine Rambeau, “Badham’s Movies Take Good Shots at Techno-Society,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 6, 1983, B11.

  5. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Robert Kominski, Current Population Reports, Special Studies, Series P-23, No. 155, Computer Use in the United States: 1984 (Washington D.C.: USGPO, 1988); Jerry Neumann, “Heat Death: Venture Capital in the 1980s,” Reaction Wheel blog, January 8, 2015, http://reactionwheel.net/2015/01/80s-vc.html, archived at https://perma.cc/F5T2-GFS9; Steven Levy, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984); Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), 134–40.

  6. Terry A. Winograd, “Strategic Computing Research and the Universities,” Report no. STAN-CS-87-1160, Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, March 1987.

  7. CPSR General Statement, Box 3, FF “Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility,” Liza Loop Papers, Undated c. 1982, SU.

  8. Winograd, “Some Thoughts on Military Funding,” CPSR Newsletter 2, no. 2 (Spring 1984).

  9. Winograd, “Strategic Computing Research and the Universities,” Silicon Valley Research Group Working Paper No. 87-7, University of California, Santa Cruz, March 1987.

  10. Roland, Strategic Computing, 86–91.

  11. Zachary Wasserman, “Inventing Startup Capitalism: Silicon Valley and the Politics of Technology Entrepreneurship from the Microchip to Reagan,” PhD dissertation, History, Yale University, 2015.

  12. Mark Crawford, “In Defense of ‘Star Wars,’” Science 228, no. 4699 (1985): 563; Cathy Werblin, “Lockheed, Silicon Valley’s Mysterious Giant,” The Business Journal, February 26, 1990, 23; Nicholas D. Kristof, “Star Wars Job Near at Lockheed,” The New York Times, November 8, 1985, D2.

  13. “March at Lockheed; 21 Star Wars Protesters Arrested in Sunnyvale,” The San Francisco Chronicle, April 22, 1986, 4; Torri Minton, “50 Arrested at Star Wars Protest at Lockheed,” The San Francisco Chronicle, October 21, 1986, 16.

  14. Michael Schrage, “Defense Budget Pushes Agenda in High Tech R&D,” The Washington Post, August 12, 1984, F1; “A Big Push for Pentagon Reform,” Editorial, The New York Times, July 22, 1986, A24.

  15. William Trombley, “Reagan Library Strains Link Between Stanford and Hoover Institution,” The Los Angeles Times, March 8, 1987, A3.

  16. Ron Lillejord and Seth Zuckerman, “The Hoover Institution: The Might of the Right?” The Stanford Daily 176, no. 29 (November 1, 1979): 3; Viewpoint, “Kennedy’s Flawed ‘Compromise,’” The Stanford Daily 184, no. 31 (November 7, 1983): 4.

  17. Tom Bothell, “Totem and Taboo at Stanford,” National Review, reprinted in Stanford Review 2, no. 1 (November 1987): 4; James Wetmore, “Former Hoover Director W. Glenn Campbell Discusses His Retirement,” Stanford Review 4, no. 1 (October 8, 1989): 4–5.

  18. Robert Marquand, “Stanford’s core ‘canon’ debate ends in compromise,” The Christian Science Monitor, April 8, 1988, https://www.csmonitor.com/1988/0408/dstan.html, archived at https://perma.cc/L5CV-XEXD [inactive]; Andrew Hartman, A War for the Soul of America: A History of the Culture Wars (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2015), esp. 222–52.

  19. Goodwin Liu, “ASSU Urges Reforms,” The Stanford Daily 192, no. 23 (October 28, 1987): 1; Josh Harkinson, “Masters of Their Domain,” Mother Jones, June 20, 2007, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2007/06/masters-their-domain-2/, archived at https://perma.cc/FAC9-NV7L.

  20. Jodi Kantor, “A Brand-New World in Which Men Ruled,” The New York Times, December 23, 2014, 1; David O. Sacks and Peter A. Thiel, The Diversity Myth: ‘Multiculturalism’ and the Politics of Intolerance at Stanford (Oakland, Calif.: The Independent Institute, 1995).

  21. Ann Hardy, phone conversation with the author, August 28, 2018. In contrast to a later generation of Silicon Valley executives who were bent on limiting screen time for their offspring, Hardy got her daughters in front of teletype machines as soon as they could sit upright; more than four decades on, she and they all agreed that the early exposure had worked to everyone’s benefit.

  22. Michael Weinstein, “Tymshare Puts McDonnell Douglas in Information Processing,” American Banker, March 7, 1984, 15; Ann Hardy, interview with the author, April 20, 2015; Ann Hardy: An Interview Conducted by Janet Abbate, IEEE History Center, July 15, 2002, Interview #599 for the IEEE History Center, The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.

  23. Michael A. Banks, On the Way to the Web: The Secret History of the Internet and Its Founders (Berkeley, Calif.: Apress, 2008), 38. Even more robust and publicly sponsored online networks emerged around the same time in countries that had maintained telecommunications service as a public utility, most notably France’s Minitel system. See Julien Mailland and Kevin Driscoll, Minitel: Welcome to the Internet (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 2017).

  24. Claire L. Evans, Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet (New York: Portfolio / Penguin, 2018), 133; Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture.

  25. Laura Smith, “In the early 1980s, white supremacist groups were early adopters (and masters) of the internet,” Medium, October 11, 2017, https://timeline.com/white-supremacist-early-internet-5e91676eb847, archived at https://perma.cc/8UKG-UB8H; Kathleen Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2018). One early and leading participant in the Cypherpunk movement was Wikileaks founder Julian Assange, who made it the subject of a book-length treatise, Cypherpunks: Freedom and the Future of the Internet (New York: OR Books, 2016).

  26. Peter H. Lewis, “Despite a New Plan for Cooling it Off, Cybersex Stays Hot,” The New York Times, March 26, 1995, 1.

  27. President’s Blue Ribbon Commission on Defense Management, A Que
st for Excellence: Final Report to the President (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, June 1986); William J. Broad, “What’s Next for ‘Star Wars’? ‘Brilliant Pebbles,’” The New York Times, April 25, 1989, C1.

  28. R. W. Apple Jr., “After the Summit,” The New York Times, June 5, 1990, 1.

  CHAPTER 18: BUILT ON SAND

  1. Susan Brown-Goebeler, “How Gray Is My Valley,” Time 138, no. 20 (November 18, 1991): 90.

  2. Zschau, correspondence with the author, September 11, 2018; McKenna, correspondence with the author, September 6, 2018; “Cranston Rides into Zschau Country—Silicon Valley,” Los Angeles Times, October 25, 1986, 37; Tom Campbell, interview with the author, February 17, 2016, by phone. Other dirty tricks marred the Zschau-Cranston race and possibly tipped the outcome, including a voter-payoff scheme in Orange County that sent its perpetrator to prison.

  3. Tom Kalil, interview with the author, August 15, 2017, by phone; John Endean, “Let the ‘Chips’ Quote Fall on Whom It May” (Letter to the Editor), The Wall Street Journal, January 16, 1992, A13.

  4. Mitchel Benson and David Kutzmann, “EPA Calls Valley Water Treatment, Air Pollution the Chief Cancer Risks,” San Jose Mercury News, October 12, 1985, A1.

  5. Judith E. Ayres, “Controlling the Dangers from High-Tech Pollution,” EPA Journal 10, no. 10 (December 1984), 14–15; Judith Cummings, “Leaking Chemicals in California’s ‘Silicon Valley’ Alarm Neighbors,” The New York Times, May 20, 1982, A22; Chop Keenan, interview with the author, March 17, 2016, Palo Alto, Calif. On environmentally “clean” ideals and realities in the industry over time, see Margaret O’Mara, “The Environmental Contradictions of High-Tech Urbanism,” in Now Urbanism: The Future City is Here, ed. Jeffrey Hou, Ben Spencer, Thaisa Way, and Ken Yocom (Abingdon, U.K.: Routledge, 2015), 26–42.

  6. Lenny Siegel and John Markoff, The High Cost of High Tech: The Dark Side of the Chip (New York: Harper & Row, 1985); Glenna Matthews, Silicon Valley, Women, and the California Dream: Gender, Class, and Opportunity in the Twentieth Century (Redwood City, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002). The hazards of chip-making also could be deadly to the workers in the fabrication plants; see “Ailing Computer-Chip Workers Blame Chemicals, Not Chance,” The New York Times, March 28, 1996, B1.

  7. David Olmos, “Electronics Industry Resists Organized Labor,” Computerworld, September 10, 1984, 113. As Timothy J. Sturgeon observes, in using contractors in this manner, electronics companies were on the front edge of what became a widely adapted form of industrial organization by U.S. manufacturers. Sturgeon, “Modular production networks: a new American model of industrial organization,” Industrial and Corporate Change 11, no. 3 (2002). For more on the tech industry’s workforce practices and its use of contractors, see Louis Hyman, Temp: How American Work, American Business, and the American Dream Became Temporary (New York: Viking, 2018).

  8. Kenneth R. Sheets, “Silicon Valley Doesn’t Hold All the Chips,” U.S. News & World Report, August 26, 1985, 45.

  9. Regis McKenna, “Marketing is Everything,” Harvard Business Review, January-February 1991, https://hbr.org/1991/01/marketing-is-everything, archived at https://perma.cc/3RUZ-GVV5.

  10. Scott Mace, “Apple Bets on the Macintosh,” InfoWorld, February 13, 1984, 20; Dan’l Lewin, interview with the author, November 21, 2017, Seattle, Wash.; “Macintosh Product Introduction Plan,” October 7, 1983, M1007, Series 7, Box 13, FF 12, SU.

  11. Matthew Creamer, “Apple’s First Marketing Guru on Why ‘1984’ is Overrated,” Advertising Age, March 1, 2012.

  12. Barbara Rudolph, Robert Buderi, and Karen Horton, “Shaken to the Very Core: After Months of Anger and Anguish, Steve Jobs Resigns as Apple Chairman,” Time 126, no. 13 (September 30, 1985): 64; Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobs (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 192–211.

  13. Phil Patton, “Steve Jobs: Out for Revenge,” The New York Times, August 6, 1989, SM23.

  14. Ron Wolf, “Amid Hoopla, ‘Next’ Computer is Unveiled by PC Pioneer Jobs,” The Washington Post, October 13, 1988, C1; Mark Potts, “Computer Industry Wary of Jobs-Perot Alliance,” The Washington Post, February 8, 1987, H2.

  15. “NeXT,” Entrepreneurs, dir. John Nathan, WETA-TV, Washington, D.C., 1986.

  16. Doron P. Levin, Irreconcilable Differences: Ross Perot versus General Motors (New York: Little, Brown, 1989), 18; Ross Perot, “A Life of Adventure,” The West Point Center for Oral History, 2010, archived at https://perma.cc/5T96-SLJU; Herbert W. Armstrong, “An Interview with H. Ross Perot,” The Plain Truth Magazine 39, no. 3 (March 1974).

  17. Robert Fitch, “H. Ross Perot: America’s First Welfare Billionaire,” Ramparts Magazine, November 1971, 42–51. Also see Fitch, “Welfare Billionaire,” The Nation 254, no. 23 (June 15, 1992): 815–16; Eric O’Keefe, A Unique One-Time Opportunity: The Story of How EDS Created Outsourcing, self-published manuscript in the author’s possession (2013); Stuart Auerbach, “Perot Medicare Bonanza Revealed,” The Washington Post, September 29, 1971, A3.

  18. Jon Nordheimer, “Billionaire Texan Fights Social Ills,” The New York Times, November 28, 1969, 41; O’Keefe, A Unique One-Time Opportunity; Todd Mason, Perot: An Unauthorized Biography (Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones–Irwin, 1990), 5.

  19. Brenton R. Schlender, “Jobs, Perot Become Unlikely Partners in the Apple Founder’s New Concern,” The Wall Street Journal, February 2, 1987, 28.

  20. Potts, “Computer Industry Wary of Jobs-Perot Alliance.”

  21. Lewin, interview with the author, November 21, 2017.

  22. G. Pascal Zachary and Ken Yamada, “What’s Next? Steve Jobs’s Vision, So on Target at Apple, Now is Falling Short,” The Wall Street Journal, May 25, 1993, A1.

  23. Wes Smith, “Booming Seattle Tells Hip Californians Just to Stay Away,” The Chicago Tribune, September 19, 1989, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1989-09-19/features/8901140398_1_seattle-area-greater-seattle-californians, archived at https://perma.cc/G4K7-HBST.

  24. Peter Huber, “Software’s Cash Register,” Forbes, October 18, 1993, 314.

  25. Trish Millines Dziko, interview with the author, April 2, 2018, by phone.

  26. Paul Andrews, “Inside Microsoft: A ‘Velvet Sweatshop’ or a High-Tech Heaven?,” The Seattle Times, April 23, 1989, PM 8–17. On Microsoft stock price and employee wealth, see O. Casey Corr, “What’s $1 Million Times 2,000?,” The Seattle Times, February 27, 1992, A1.

  27. Mark Leibovich, “Alter Egos: Two Sides of a High-Tech Brain Trust Make Up a Powerful Partnership,” The Washington Post, December 31, 2000, A1; John Heilemann, Pride Before the Fall: The Trials of Bill Gates and the End of the Microsoft Era (New York: CollinsBusiness, 2001), 49.

  28. Rachel Lerman, “Pam Edstrom Was Voice Behind Microsoft’s Story, Dies at 71,” The Seattle Times, March 30, 2017, https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/obituaries/pam-edstrom-was-voice-behind-microsofts-story/, archived at https://perma.cc/3ZNJ-53HL [inactive].

  29. Stephen Manes and Paul Andrews, Gates (New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1993), 148, 244.

  30. Kara Swisher, AOL.com: How Steve Case Beat Bill Gates, Nailed the Netheads, and Made Millions in the War for the Web (New York: Crown Business, 1998), xvii; Manes and Andrews, Gates, 403.

  31. Brenton R. Schlender, “Computer Maker Aims to Transform Industry and Become a Giant,” The Wall Street Journal, March 18, 1988, 1.

  32. “April Fool Pranks in Sun Microsystems Over the Years,” Hacker News, February 14, 2006, last updated January 26, 2014, https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7121224, archived at https://perma.cc/G5GH-FN6F.

  33. Nancy Householder Hauge, “Misogyny in the Valley,” and “Life in the Boy’s Dorm: My Career at Sun Microsystems,” Consulting Adult, January 29, 2010, http://consultingadultblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/life-in-boys-dorm-my-career-at-sun.html, archived at https://perma.cc/26WB-KTV9.

  34. AnnaLee Saxenian, “Regional Networks and the Resurgence of Silicon Va
lley,” California Management Review 33, no. 1 (Fall 1990): 89–113.

  35. Mark Potts, “Rebellious Apple Finally Grows Up,” The Washington Post, June 14, 1987, D1; Haynes Johnson, “Future Looks Precarious to Silicon Valley Voters,” The Washington Post, October 24, 1988, A1; Brown-Goebeler, “How Gray Is My Valley.”

  36. “White House Won’t Back Chip Subsidy,” The New York Times, November 30, 1989, B1.

  37. Constance L. Hays, “An Inventor of the Microchip, Robert N. Noyce, Dies at 62,” The New York Times, June 4, 1990, A1.

  38. “Companies with over 500 Employees,” November 1986, Silicon Valley Ephemera Collection, Series 1, Box 5, FF 12, SU; Ken Siegmann, “Lockheed Cutting Thousands of Jobs,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 4, 1993, B1; Michelle Quinn, “The Turbulence at Lockheed,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 23, 1995, B1; Alan C. Miller, “Berman Feels the Heat Over Defense Cuts,” The Los Angeles Times, June 23, 1991, A3.

  39. Glenn Rifkin, “Light at the End of Digital’s Tunnel,” The New York Times, October 29, 1991, D1.

  40. Fox Butterfield, “Chinese Immigrant Emerges as Boston’s Top Benefactor,” The New York Times, May 5, 1984, 1; Dennis Hevesi, “An Wang, 70, is Dead of Cancer; Inventor and Maker of Computers,” The New York Times, March 25, 1990, 38.

  41. David Morgenthaler, interviews with the author.

  ACT FOUR

  1. Christopher E. Martin, Khary Turner, “Ten Crack Commandments,” Sony/ATV Music Publishing, 1997.

  ARRIVALS

  1. Brent Schlender, “How a Virtuoso Plays the Web,” Fortune 141, no. 5 (March 6, 2000): 79–83.

  2. United States Census, 1970, 1990. For more on the growth of the South Bay’s Asian-American population and the social and political impacts of its growth, see Willow S. Lung-Amam, Trespassers? Asian Americans and the Battle for Suburbia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017), especially 19–52.

  3. Lowell B. Lindsay, “A Long View of America’s Immigration Policy and the Supply of Foreign-Born STEM Workers in the United States,” American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 7 (2010): 1029–44; AnnaLee Saxenian, “Silicon Valley’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs” (Public Policy Institute of California, 1999); Vivek Wadhwa, AnnaLee Saxenian, Ben Rissing, and Gary Gereffi, “America’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs,” Master of Engineering Management Program, Duke University; School of Information, University of California, Berkeley, January 4, 2007. Another significant impetus for this immigration: international educational exchange and foreign student programs, which had their origins in Cold War diplomacy; see Margaret O’Mara, “The Uses of the Foreign Student,” Social Science History 36, no. 4 (Winter 2012): 583–615.